1. CHAPTER 2: LEADERSHIP SKILLS “Leadership is the knack of getting somebody to do something you want done because he wants to do it.” Dwight D. Eisenhower

2. Contents The Communication Process Direction of Communication Types of Conflict Common Causes of Conflict Techniques to Improve Your Conflict Management Skills The Decision-Making Process Time Management

3. Introduction After reading this chapter, you should have knowledge about: The communication process and the barriers to effective communication Communication skills that help develop positive relationships The types of conflict and its common causes Strategies to minimize and resolve conflict Factors affecting the decision-making process Techniques to bring about organizational change This chapter reviews some of the accepted guidelines so you will be able to develop your skills in each of the four crucial areas of an effective leader: 1. Communication 2. Conflict management 3. Decision making 4. Management

4. The Communication Process

5. Communication Means sending a message to a receiver 70% of our daily activities, therefore one of the most serious flaws of any potential leader The message must be completely understood in order to be effective Requires: Knowledge of the effectiveness of different types of communication Development of good listening skills Use of paraphrasing and feedback

6. The Communication Model SENDER RECEIVER Why you little!!! MESSAGE – SYMBOLIC FORM MESSAGE CHANNEL ONE WAY Encoding- Decoding Symbolic Encoding- Decoding Possible barriers TWO-WAY FEEDBACK

7. Barrier to Effective Communication Filtering Selective attention Defensiveness Information overload Differing gender styles Poor listening skills Physical or environmental barriers Body language

8. Filtering When the sender of a message purposely communicates information that she thinks will be viewed favourably by the receiver Telling someone what you think he wants to hear For example, telling your teacher that the class was really interesting and informative, even if you don’t really believe that, in the hope that the teacher will raise your mark

9. Selective Attention Individuals receiving message see and hear things based on their own needs, experiences, and motivations We tend to hear and see selectively to reinforce our personal perspectives, and we base our interpretations on our personal value systems For example, a man who believes that women are poor drivers will look for situations to support his viewpoint rather than assess all situations equally “Reality is only an illusion, albeit a very persistent one.” Einstein

10. Defensiveness When individuals are feeling threatened, they tend to react in a manner that hinders their ability to understand any form of communication, often in aggressive manner This hinders effective communication and does not solve the problem For example, if your coach tells you that you are not putting out enough effort, you may find it tempting to respond that “the drill was stupid in the first place”

11. Information overload An overwhelming array of data is available today As a result, people invariably resort to weeding out, ignoring, tuning out, forgetting, or passing over information that they normally would have read or thoughtfully considered Either way, the result is lost information and less effective communication

12. Differing gender styles Current research indicates that men and women use oral communication for very different reasons This means that gender has the potential to become a serious barrier to effective communication between the sexes Men talk to emphasize status, whereas women talk in an attempt to make a connection

13. Poor listening skills Many individuals are poor listeners This is likely because active listening is hard work – it is much more tiring than talking Listening involves an active search for meaning, whereas hearing is passive

14. Physical or environmental barriers EXAMPLES: Receiver has a hearing impairment – Use sign language, pictures, or other forms of visual communication Outside in the bright sunlight – Set the group you are communicating with so they have the sun to their backs Windy or noisy situations – Make sure your group is close to you for instructions Equipment – Not to have any sports equipment available Attention span of listeners – Minimize complex instructions

15. Body language A verbal message that is contradictory to your body language may also distract or confuse communication For example, if you tell someone, “I am happy to see you,” but your arms are crossed and there’s an angry expression on your face, your message is going to create confusion

16. Direction of Communication

17. Upward Flows from a lower to a higher level in the organization Helps the leader stay informed about his team members’ goals, performance efforts, feelings, morale, and organizational concerns in general Provides the leader with suggestions that have the potential to improve the group’s overall effectiveness

18. Downward Leaders communicating to their followers or coaches instructing their athletes Used to assign goals, provide job or skill instruction, provide performance feedback, and point out problems that are in need of attention

19. Lateral Among members at the same organizational level To save time and facilitate coordination If the group decides in advance about a chosen approach to a problem, this can then be communicated to the leader with a feeling and showing of solidarity Lateral communication can also serve a role in team member bonding

20. Types of Conflict

21. “Most people evaluate events in their lives according to how they will be personally affected. Leaders think within a broader context.” John C. Maxwell Conflict arises when there is a disagreement about how to best solve a particular problem May be about something that is really personal or It can result from a disagreement between two or more people Finding the best solution to a conflict involves Rationally considering the various possibilities Showing empathy for the points of view of the involved parties

22. Personalized versus Depersonalized Conflict Depersonalized When a conflict stems from a difficult situation or problem A rational resolution process without emotion is possible Often can become personalized as individuals become invested in a particular point of view Personalized When people are in opposition to one another Emotional reactions and feelings often arise, and having to work with this person may be annoying, confrontational, or offensive to the people involved Most important, it may cause an unproductive work environment Event has no impact on you personally. Event has great personal impact. Event starts to mean more to you personally.

23. Intrapersonal versus Interpersonal Conflict Intrapersonal Internal conflict, or having to make a tough decision all on your own A person who has developed a clear set of personal values and a strategy for making decisions faces less stress than these dilemmas often present for others less prepared Interpersonal Conflict between two or more individuals, where each holds an opposing view

24. Intragroup versus Intergroup Conflict Intragroup When a group is split on an issue The decisions that are most strongly supported afterwards, are those where the group reaches a consensus i.e., by the time the vote is taken, the decision is unanimous Intergroup When entire groups are in conflict with each other

25. Common Causes of Conflict

26. Differing Goals, Needs, or Values If your goals differ from those of the people you are interacting with, you may place different value on various outcomes For example, if you value group harmony, and you are working in a group with someone who is more concerned about getting a task completed than about keeping group members happy, your group may experience conflict

27. Rivalries and Personal Ambitions If you are at a tryout for a basketball team and don’t pass the ball to an open competing player, then try for an improbable layup to outshine others, you might be putting personal ambition ahead of the needs of the team

28. Avoidance of Responsibility You might feel conflict if group members do not complete their responsibilities For example, if your group assigned a task to someone and she didn’t meet her timeline, you might blame her for the poor mark you got on the task Working with people who do not complete the work they are assigned can cause confusion and it ultimately leads to frustration and low group morale

29. Carelessness in Job Performance If your personal work expectations are not matched by the others in the group, then you may have trouble trusting the quality of the work submitted by the other group members You may be tempted to do all the work yourself, or you might be really demanding on the other members to ensure their work is up to your standards In either case, conflict is very likely to occur

30. Overlap in Job Responsibilities If more than one person or group is assigned to the same task when planning an event, conflict and disorder may arise if they do not work on the task in a coordinated manner The different individuals or groups involved may think they are “wasting their efforts” because of the duplication or may feel they are not trusted to fulfill their responsibilities If both groups assume the other is doing the work and don’t communicate, the task may not get done at all and the timelines may not be met As well, the message that each of these groups sends out to the target group may differ, causing confusion as well as conflict

31. Personal and Group Stress Stress often brings out the worst in people We often experience problems with both our intrapersonal and interpersonal communication skills Our listening skills that suffer first We often have trouble empathizing with their situation We may be more verbally aggressive or self-serving than normal Stress can change how you look at situations, and you need to be careful to be assertive and not aggressive or passive

32. Prejudice Whenever someone judges another person based on race, religion, colour, gender, or sexual orientation, conflict is almost inevitable When Jackie Robinson broke the “colour barrier” in 1947, the conflict within the sport of baseball, and even with his own teammates on the Brooklyn Dodgers, was well documented

33. Misunderstandings Often result from poor communication within a group If a group doesn’t use clear messages and there is a misunderstanding, clarifying the situation will be difficult For example, gossip is a dangerous method of communication, and the message invariably gets changed extensively before it ever completes the full circle. Feelings are often hurt as a result of the misunderstandings that arise from gossip, and it should be avoided

34. Techniques to Improve Your Conflict Management Skills

35. Conflict Management “You will go through tough times again in your life.. Always, always remember these three words: Responsibility. Determination. Courage. And don’t ever give up on you.” Danièle Sauvageau In any group or team, conflicts are an inevitable The ability to properly handle these conflict situations is an important skill for a leader There are a number of widely used approaches to conflict resolution, and good leaders will use more than one depending on the situation

36. Active Listening Involves asking appropriate questions to better understand how someone else is feeling and why Allows the other person to tell you more More than just listen or hear, it requires trying to understand person’s needs By asking questions such as: How would you like things to be? Would you like things to be different?

37. Active Listening Skills Improve your listening skills by practicing active listening: Remember to make eye contact Show you are interested in what the other person is saying Avoid distracting actions or gestures, such as looking at your watch Ask questions for clarification and to ensure understanding of the message Use nonverbal cues, such as head nods or hand gestures, to convey interest Use paraphrasing if necessary to ensure understanding Avoid interrupting the sender; let her complete her thoughts Don’t “over-talk” – remember that knowledge is composed of two parts: having a lot to say and knowing when not to say it!

38. Win–Win In a compromise situation, one party will give up some of what he really wants and take less to allow the other party to get some of what she wants With compromise, there is no clear loser, but there is no clear winner either Sometimes compromise is best solution as each party intends to give up something In a win–win situation, you must “think outside the box” and explore how to fully meet the needs of both parties at the same time The challenge is to do everything possible to make your solution win–win Example: Both Tim and Sally need the last lemon. After further discussion, it turns out that Tim wants to make a cake using the lemon rind, and Sally wants the pulp of the lemon to make lemonade.

39. Using “I” Messages and Being Assertive A person effectively uses an “I” message when he communicates his emotions, identifies the situation that is causing these feelings, and proposes a solution Without blaming anyone directly and not at the expense of compromising anyone else’s needs Example: “Dad, when I am studying in my room and you yell at me from the kitchen to “empty the trash right now,” I feel annoyed because I think studying is important. It makes me feel that you think I can’t manage my time or my chores, but I think I am quite capable of it. In the future, I would appreciate it if you came to my room and asked me to do the chore, and I will do it when I take my next break from studying.”

40. Mediation A process in which a neutral third party (a mediator) helps the participants resolve their conflict without aggression or coercion The mediation process has several steps: Establish a respectful environment Identify the problem List the alternatives Select the best alternative Write out a plan Evaluate at a later date

41. Adjudication A process in which a neutral third party listens to all sides of a dispute and then makes a judgment based on the available information This takes responsibility for resolving the conflict from the disputants and hands it over to the adjudicator The adjudicator must have her authority accepted by all parties or else her decision will be ignored Example: When a professional athlete feels he should be paid the same as other players in the league who are at the same talent level, and the team management believes the athlete is not worth the money he is asking for. So the player and the team agree to go to arbitration to solve the problem. The arbitrator’s decision is final.

42. Avoidance Another method of dealing with conflict is to avoid it This does not offer a permanent way of resolving the conflict, but it is an extremely popular short-term solution It gives conflicting parties a chance to cool down It may not solve the problem; it can intensify an issue and delay its resolution Example: Walking out of a group meeting because you don’t agree with the event your student council is planning for the senior prom

43. Accommodation When one of the conflicting parties makes a conscious decision to place another person’s needs before or above her own It sometimes involves making personal sacrifices, often at the expense of your own needs May also involve an element of empathy towards an opponent When an individual acknowledges a personal mistake, or accepts another person’s point of view because this second viewpoint is backed by others If we always accept everyone else’s viewpoints just to avoid conflict, then we are acting passively, and this method may encourage the conflicting party to expect similar compliance in different situations in the future Example: Discontinuing a full-court press in basketball to keep the score from getting too high by putting in bench players

44. The Decision-Making Process

45. Decision-Making Process Occurs as a reaction to a problem or an available opportunity A problem usually involves a discrepancy between the status quo and some other preferred state of affairs, and it requires a consideration of alternative courses of action Opportunities, on the other hand, occur when something unplanned happens, giving rise to ideas about new ways of proceeding to take advantage of that opportunity

46. The Decision-Making Model In the IDEAL model of decision making each step needs to be followed in order It gives a leader an objective way to make decisions, rather than relying on subjective feelings or the overall attractiveness of an option Unfortunately, most decisions in the real world don’t follow the IDEAL model Step 1: Identify or define the problem. Step 2: Discuss available alternatives for solving the problem. Step 3: Evaluate pros and cons of each alternative, and determine the best course of action. Step 4: Act. It is important to act on the best option. If you do not act, then the problem will not get resolved. Step 5: Learn. Reflect on your decision, and learn from the situation for the future.

47. Factors Affecting Decision- Making Judgmental shortcuts - making decisions based on previous outcomes that are similar but not necessarily the same as the current situation Decision-making style - if you make decisions without involving others, then the decision may be flawed External judgment - if you participate in a sport just because your parents encourage you to Internal judgment - if you care too much about what people think of you, then your decisions are more likely to be governed by peer pressure

48. Time Management

49. “One of the best ways to save time is to think and plan ahead; five minutes of thinking can often save an hour of work.” John C. Maxwell Person’s ability to effectively allocate his time and resources in order to achieve personal objectives Results in a greater sense of overall well-being Reduces stress and results in a more positive work–life balance Time-management strategies 

50. Plan and prioritize Proper planning is absolutely essential for effective time management The 5 or 10 minutes you spend organizing your schedule can result in a net savings of many hours during your total workweek or the length of an individual project

51. Prepare “to-do” lists Make a list of everything you wish to accomplish each day Prioritize according to the importance of completing each task Items that absolutely must be done Items that should be done, time permitting Items that can wait until tomorrow Break especially complex tasks into manageable steps Specify a time frame for completing each step

52. Draw up a schedule Schedule your daily activities according to the priorities you have set Attack those projects that are absolutely critical first Then distribute your time over the other items on your list in order of priority and flexibility

53. Plan some “downtime” Don’t forget to incorporate downtime in your daily schedule To rest up and recharge our internal batteries Research has shown that you can actually get more work done if you take several short breaks than if you choose to work straight through the day

54. Identify your optimal working time Your biological “prime time” Each one of us has a time of the day when we are most effective in our work efforts Schedule the most urgent and critical tasks during this optimal time, then plan the less demanding and less important tasks for other periods of your day

55. Minimize distractions Organize your work environment in a manner that will increase your chances of completing the planned task Go to your room instead of sitting in front of the TV Comfortable work area or desk Turn off your phone, your iPod, and your compute Avoid responding to MSN messages or checking your Facebook account OR go somewhere you can complete your project without distractions, such as the library

56. Delegate responsibility to others If you try to do everything yourself, you could easily become overwhelmed Create a balanced division of labour within a group 1. Is this something only I can do? 2. If not, to whom can the task be appropriately assigned? 3. Is this person adequately prepared to complete the task successfully?

57. Don’t procrastinate Procrastination is one of the biggest time wasters in any organization If a task absolutely must be performed, then there is no time like the present to complete it Your responsibility will not simply go away by putting the task off until tomorrow It leaves you with little or no time to review your work, incorporate feedback, and ensure that the final product is accurate and of sufficient quality to reflect well on your efforts