1. Language and social variation
Chapter 19

2. Sociolinguistics
The way one speaks provides clues not only to a person’s regional background but also to his social one, e.g. his/her education and economic status.
Speech is a form of social identity.
Language indicates the membership of different social group- speech community.
Speech community
A group of people= share a set of norms, rules, and expectation about language use.

3. Sociolinguistics The relationship between language and the society.
Linguistics + anthropology
Language and culture
Linguistics + sociology
The role language plays in the organization of social groups
Linguistics + social psychology
In-group and out-group behaviors

4. Social dialects
How the linguistic variables (words- pronunciation) differ between groups separated by certain social variables, e.g., ethnicity, economic status, gender, level of education, etc.
Social class defines a group of people as having something in common
Middle class
High middle class
Lower-middle class
Working class
Usage varies among social classes, and it is these sociolects that sociolinguistics studies

5. Social dialects Accent may indicate social status In Edinburgh
Lower-working class people pronounce ‘home’ as ‘he:m’
Lower-middle class people pronounce it as ‘ho:m”
Structure may also indicate social status
Ain’t as ‘I ain’t finishes yet’ is used more by working class people than by middle class

6. Education and occupation
Each of us has her own idiolect (personal dialect) but we sound more like those who share similar educational background
People who went to college speak different than those who didn’t
e.g. them boys throwed somethin’
Education is reflected in occupation
Doctors don’t speak like those who clean windows
University professors, bank executives all speak different than those who work in local jobs

7. Education and occupation
Labov (1966)
Linguistic variable is the pronunciation differences [r] after vowels and the social variables are place of occupation + socio-economic status
He looked at three New York department stores, one with upper-middle-class status, and one with middle-class status and another with working-class status.
He asked ‘Where are the women’s shoes’?
The higher the socio-economic the more [r] is pronounced.

8. Education and occupation
Trudgill (1974) in Reading, England
Linguistic variable [r] and social variable is the social class
It has an opposite social value than in New York.
Upper class pronounce the [r] fewer than lower classes
Oh, that’s mahvellous, dahling!

9. Social markers
The significance of the linguistic variable [r] can be the opposite in terms of social status in two different- it functions as a social marker
Having the feature marks you as a member of a particular group

10. Social markers
Another social markers is the final pronunciation of [ŋ] as [n] as a marker of less education and lower social status
e.g. drinkin’ , sittin’ , playin’
The dropping of initial ‘h’ is associated with less education and lower social status
E.g I’m so ‘ungry I could eat an ‘orse

11. Speech style and style-shifting
Speech style= a way of speaking that is either formal/careful or informal/casual
A change from one to another is called ‘style-shifting’
Middle-class people are more likely to shift styles (Labov, 1966)
They sense that the a certain linguistic feature may be ‘better’ in terms of social status

12. Prestige
A prestige dialect is the dialect spoken by the most prestigious people in a speech community
Overt prestige- status that is generally recognized as ‘better’ or more positively valued in the community
Covert prestige- the status of a feature as having positive but ‘hidden’ value or not valued as such among the larger community

13. Speech accommodation
Speech accommodation-our ability to modify our speech toward or away from the perceived style of the person we’re talking to.
Convergence- reduced social distance
C’mon Tony, gizzalook, gizzalook
Excuse me, Could I have a look at your photo too Mrs. Hall? (Holmes, 1992)
Divergence- emphasizes social distance
TEEN: I can’t do it, sir.
TEACHER: oh, come on. If I can do it, you can.
TEEN: Look, I cannae dae it so..

14. Register A variety that is appropriate in a specific context
Situational (e.g. in church)
Occupational (e.g. among lawyers)
Topical (e.g. talking about languages)
The morphology of this dialect contains fewer inflectional suffixes
Linguistic register- the use of special jargon

15. Jargon ‘Insider’ vs. ‘outsider’
The defining feature of register is the use of jargon.
Technical vocabulary associated with special activity or group
Doctors
Linguists (e.g. suffix, inflection)
Computer specialists
‘Insider’ vs. ‘outsider’

16. Slang
Words or phrases used instead of everyday speech by those who are outside higher-status groups
E.g. ‘buck’ (dollar)
It is used as a marker of social group especially among young people.
Slang expressions can ‘grow old’ quickly.
Taboo terms- words and phrases that people avoid- religious, politeness, or prohibited behavior
Swear words

17. Social barrier
A phenomenon such as discrimination and segregation that separates social groups and creates marked differences in social dialects.
African American English (AAE)
Often labeled as ‘bad language’
Has covert prestige

18. Vernacular language African American Vernacular English (AAVE)
Vernacular- social dialect spoken by a lower-status social group
Sounds
Reduce final consonant cluster
Left hand – ‘lef han’
Dental consonants are pronounced as alveolar stops
‘think, that’ – ‘tink, dat’

19. AAVE Morphology Grammar
Dropping of possessive ‘s and third person singular
Dropping of the plural ‘s
Two guy – one of my friend
Grammar
Double negative
He don’t know nothing
I ain’t afraid of no ghosts
Absence of verb to be
You crazy
She workin’ now