2. Nonrenewable energy is energy that comes from the ground and is not replaced in a relatively short amount of time. Nonrenewable energy is energy that comes from the ground and is not replaced in a relatively short amount of time. Fossil fuels are the main category of nonrenewable energy. Fossil fuels are the main category of nonrenewable energy. Fossil fuels include; coal, oil and natural gas. Fossil fuels include; coal, oil and natural gas. These resources come from animals and plants that have died millions of years ago and then decomposed to create a useable source of energy for humans. These resources come from animals and plants that have died millions of years ago and then decomposed to create a useable source of energy for humans.

4. Net energy is the amount of high- quality energy available from an energy resource minus the amount of energy needed to make it available. Net energy is the amount of high- quality energy available from an energy resource minus the amount of energy needed to make it available. Because of the first law of thermodynamics, it takes high- quality energy to get high-quality energy. Because of the first law of thermodynamics, it takes high- quality energy to get high-quality energy. For example, before oil becomes useful to us, it must be found, pumped up from beneath the ground, transferred to a refinery, converted to useful fuels, and delivered to us. For example, before oil becomes useful to us, it must be found, pumped up from beneath the ground, transferred to a refinery, converted to useful fuels, and delivered to us. Each of these steps uses high-quality energy, mostly obtained by burning fossil fuels such as oil and coal. Each of these steps uses high-quality energy, mostly obtained by burning fossil fuels such as oil and coal.

5. Any energy resource with a low or negative net energy yield cannot compete in the open marketplace with other energy alternatives with higher net energy. Any energy resource with a low or negative net energy yield cannot compete in the open marketplace with other energy alternatives with higher net energy. For example, electricity produced by nuclear power has a low net energy yield because large amounts of energy are needed for each step in the nuclear power cycle. For example, electricity produced by nuclear power has a low net energy yield because large amounts of energy are needed for each step in the nuclear power cycle.

6. One component of a net energy ration is the amount of energy resource that is wasted because of the energy lost due to the second law of thermodynamics. One component of a net energy ration is the amount of energy resource that is wasted because of the energy lost due to the second law of thermodynamics. We have no control over this factor except try to use energy resources with net energy yields. We have no control over this factor except try to use energy resources with net energy yields. Another component of any net energy ratio is the energy that is unnecessarily wasted in making useful energy available for use. Another component of any net energy ratio is the energy that is unnecessarily wasted in making useful energy available for use. We can control this factor by reducing unnecessary waste and thus raising the net energy yield of a resource. We can control this factor by reducing unnecessary waste and thus raising the net energy yield of a resource.

7. Oil supplies about one-third of the world’s commercial energy and 40% of that used in the United States. Oil supplies about one-third of the world’s commercial energy and 40% of that used in the United States. Petroleum, or crude oil( oil as it comes out of the ground), is a black, gooey liquid consisting of hundreds of different combustible hydrocarbons. Crude oil (a non-renewable resource) is usually found in underground areas called reservoirs. Petroleum, or crude oil( oil as it comes out of the ground), is a black, gooey liquid consisting of hundreds of different combustible hydrocarbons. Crude oil (a non-renewable resource) is usually found in underground areas called reservoirs. This conventional oil, makes up about 30% of the world’s estimated supply of oil. This conventional oil, makes up about 30% of the world’s estimated supply of oil. The other 70% is unconventional heavy oil with the consistency of molasses. The other 70% is unconventional heavy oil with the consistency of molasses.

8. Conventional oil is currently abundant, has a high net energy yield, and is relatively inexpensive. Conventional oil is currently abundant, has a high net energy yield, and is relatively inexpensive. However, using the oil causes air and water pollution and releases greenhouse gases to the atmosphere.. However, using the oil causes air and water pollution and releases greenhouse gases to the atmosphere..

9. The 13 countries that make up the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) have about 60% of the world’s proven crude oil reserves. The 13 countries that make up the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC) have about 60% of the world’s proven crude oil reserves. A serious problem for oil supplies worldwide is that since 1984, production of conventional crude oil has exceeded new oil discoveries. A serious problem for oil supplies worldwide is that since 1984, production of conventional crude oil has exceeded new oil discoveries. Some analysts say that there is a lot of oil still to be found. Some analysts say that there is a lot of oil still to be found. But they are talking mostly about small, dispersed, and harder-to-extract deposits of conventional crude oil. But they are talking mostly about small, dispersed, and harder-to-extract deposits of conventional crude oil.

10. The United States gets about 85% of its commercial energy from fossil fuels, with 40% coming from crude oil. The United States gets about 85% of its commercial energy from fossil fuels, with 40% coming from crude oil. The United States produces about 9% of the world’s crude oil, but it uses 23% of the world’s production. The United States produces about 9% of the world’s crude oil, but it uses 23% of the world’s production. The basic problem is that the United States has only about 1.5% of the world’s proven crude oil reserves. The basic problem is that the United States has only about 1.5% of the world’s proven crude oil reserves. The United States cannot even come close to meeting its huge and growing demand for crude oil and gasoline by increasing domestic supplies The United States cannot even come close to meeting its huge and growing demand for crude oil and gasoline by increasing domestic supplies

11. To keep using conventional oil at the projected increasing rate of consumption, we must discover proven reserves of conventional oil equivalent to the current Saudi Arabian supply every 5 years. To keep using conventional oil at the projected increasing rate of consumption, we must discover proven reserves of conventional oil equivalent to the current Saudi Arabian supply every 5 years. The extraction, processing, and burning of nonrenewable oil and other fossil fuels have severe environmental impacts, including land disruption, greenhouse gas emissions and other forms of pollution, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. The extraction, processing, and burning of nonrenewable oil and other fossil fuels have severe environmental impacts, including land disruption, greenhouse gas emissions and other forms of pollution, water pollution, and loss of biodiversity. Advantages of crude oil is that it bountiful, has a high net energy yield (but is decreasing) and had efficient distribution system. Advantages of crude oil is that it bountiful, has a high net energy yield (but is decreasing) and had efficient distribution system. Producing crude oil from tar sands uses large quantities of water. Producing crude oil from tar sands uses large quantities of water.

12. Low sulfur content and therefore less air pollution Low sulfur content and therefore less air pollution Has large potential supplies Has large potential supplies Easily transported within and between countries Easily transported within and between countries

13. Low net energy yield Low net energy yield Releases CO2 and other air pollutants when produced and burned Releases CO2 and other air pollutants when produced and burned Severe land disruption and high water use Severe land disruption and high water use Oil shale extraction

14. Oily rocks are another potential supply of heavy oil. Oily rocks are another potential supply of heavy oil. Such rocks, called oil shales, contain a solid combustible mixture of hydrocarbons) called kerogen. Such rocks, called oil shales, contain a solid combustible mixture of hydrocarbons) called kerogen. Kerogens are extracted from crush oil shales after they are heated in a large container. Kerogens are extracted from crush oil shales after they are heated in a large container. About 72% of the world’s estimated oil shale reserves are buried deep in rock formations located primarily in Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah. About 72% of the world’s estimated oil shale reserves are buried deep in rock formations located primarily in Colorado, Wyoming, and Utah.

15. The problem is that most of these oil shale deposits are locked up in rock and ore, that it takes a lot of energy and money to mine and convert the kerogen to shale oil. The problem is that most of these oil shale deposits are locked up in rock and ore, that it takes a lot of energy and money to mine and convert the kerogen to shale oil. Its net energy is low, even lower that that of heavy oil produced from tar sands. Its net energy is low, even lower that that of heavy oil produced from tar sands. Disadvantages of shale oil as an energy source include all of the following except potentially recoverable U.S. deposits are only enough to meet the country's crude oil demand for five years. Disadvantages of shale oil as an energy source include all of the following except potentially recoverable U.S. deposits are only enough to meet the country's crude oil demand for five years.

16. Natural Gas is colorless, shapeless, and odorless in its pure form. Natural Gas is colorless, shapeless, and odorless in its pure form. Unlike other fossil fuels, natural gas is clean burning and emits lower levels of potentially harmful byproducts into the air. It is therefore called "Clean Gas'. Unlike other fossil fuels, natural gas is clean burning and emits lower levels of potentially harmful byproducts into the air. It is therefore called "Clean Gas'. The main ingredient in natural gas is methane, a gas (or compound) composed of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. The main ingredient in natural gas is methane, a gas (or compound) composed of one carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms. Natural gas supplies about 23.8 percent of the world's energy. Natural gas supplies about 23.8 percent of the world's energy. Natural Gas Stove Burner

17. Burning natural gas releases the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and several other air pollutants into the atmosphere. Burning natural gas releases the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide and several other air pollutants into the atmosphere. However, it releases much less CO2 per unit of energy than do coal, crude oil, tar sands and oil shales, and the nuclear power fuel cycle. However, it releases much less CO2 per unit of energy than do coal, crude oil, tar sands and oil shales, and the nuclear power fuel cycle.

18. There is several sources of unconventional natural gas. There is several sources of unconventional natural gas. One is coal bed methane gas, which is found in coal beds near the earth’s surface across parts of the USA and Canada. One is coal bed methane gas, which is found in coal beds near the earth’s surface across parts of the USA and Canada. Another unconventional source is methane hydrate which is methane trapped in icy, cage-like structures of water molecules. Another unconventional source is methane hydrate which is methane trapped in icy, cage-like structures of water molecules. It costs too much to get natural gas from methane hydrates, and release of methane to the atmosphere during removal. It costs too much to get natural gas from methane hydrates, and release of methane to the atmosphere during removal.

19. Coal is formed from fossilised plants and consisting of carbon with various organic and some inorganic compounds. Coal is formed from fossilised plants and consisting of carbon with various organic and some inorganic compounds. It is obtained from mining and is the most difficult resource to get. It is obtained from mining and is the most difficult resource to get. Coal has been widely used to provide heat and electricity. Coal has been widely used to provide heat and electricity. The problem is that coal is by far the dirtiest of all fossil fuels. Before it is even burned, the processes of making it available severely degrade land and pollute water and air. The problem is that coal is by far the dirtiest of all fossil fuels. Before it is even burned, the processes of making it available severely degrade land and pollute water and air.

20. CO2 emissions and the Carbon Cycle The U.S. coal industry along with many coal-burning electric utility companies, funded a $40 million publicity campaign to promote the misleading idea of clean coal. The U.S. coal industry along with many coal-burning electric utility companies, funded a $40 million publicity campaign to promote the misleading idea of clean coal. However, critics point out that there is no such thing as clean coal. However, critics point out that there is no such thing as clean coal. Mining coal usually involves disrupting the land and polluting water and air. Mining coal usually involves disrupting the land and polluting water and air. Even with stricter air pollution controls, burning coal will always involve some emissions of CO2 and other air pollutants, and it will always create toxic coal ash removed from smokestack emissions. Even with stricter air pollution controls, burning coal will always involve some emissions of CO2 and other air pollutants, and it will always create toxic coal ash removed from smokestack emissions.

21. We can convert solid coal into synthetic natural gas (SNG) by a process called coal gasification, which removes sulfur and most other impurities from coal. We can convert solid coal into synthetic natural gas (SNG) by a process called coal gasification, which removes sulfur and most other impurities from coal. We can also convert coal into liquid fuels such as methanol and synthetic gasoline through a process called coal liquefaction. We can also convert coal into liquid fuels such as methanol and synthetic gasoline through a process called coal liquefaction. Such fuels are called synfuels, which have a lower net energy yield and cost more to produce than conventional coal. Such fuels are called synfuels, which have a lower net energy yield and cost more to produce than conventional coal. Greatly increased used of these synfuels would worsen two of the world’s major environmental problems: projected climate change and increasing water shortages Greatly increased used of these synfuels would worsen two of the world’s major environmental problems: projected climate change and increasing water shortages

23. A nuclear power plant is a complex and costly system A nuclear power plant is a complex and costly system It is designed to perform a simple task: to boil water and produce steam that spins a turbine and generates electricity. It is designed to perform a simple task: to boil water and produce steam that spins a turbine and generates electricity. The fuel for a reactor is made from uranium ore mined from the earth’s crust. The fuel for a reactor is made from uranium ore mined from the earth’s crust. After it is mined, the ore must be enriched to increase the concentration of its fissionable uranium-235 by 1% to 5%. After it is mined, the ore must be enriched to increase the concentration of its fissionable uranium-235 by 1% to 5%.

24. A nuclear power plant is only one part of the nuclear fuel cycle A nuclear power plant is only one part of the nuclear fuel cycle The nuclear fuel cycle is the series of industrial processes which involve the production of electricity from uranium in nuclear power reactors. The nuclear fuel cycle is the series of industrial processes which involve the production of electricity from uranium in nuclear power reactors. Uranium is mined in a number of countries and must be processed before it can be used as fuel for a nuclear reactor. Uranium is mined in a number of countries and must be processed before it can be used as fuel for a nuclear reactor. Fuel removed from a reactor, after it has reached the end of its useful life, can be reprocessed to produce new fuel. Fuel removed from a reactor, after it has reached the end of its useful life, can be reprocessed to produce new fuel.

25. In 2010, 436 commercial nuclear reactors in 31 countries produced only 6% of the world’s commercial energy and 14% of its electricity. In 2010, 436 commercial nuclear reactors in 31 countries produced only 6% of the world’s commercial energy and 14% of its electricity. Nuclear power is now the world’s slowest-growing form of commercial energy. Nuclear power is now the world’s slowest-growing form of commercial energy. Because of the multiple built-in safety features, the risk of exposure to radioactivity from nuclear power plants is extremely low. Because of the multiple built-in safety features, the risk of exposure to radioactivity from nuclear power plants is extremely low.

26. Advantages Low environmental impact (w/o accidents) Low environmental impact (w/o accidents) Emits 1/6 as much CO2 as coal Emits 1/6 as much CO2 as coalDisadvantages Very low net energy yield and high overall cost Very low net energy yield and high overall cost Produces long-lived, harmful radioactive wastes Produces long-lived, harmful radioactive wastes

28. After about 3 or 4 years, the high-grade uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor becomes spent, useless, and must be replaced. After about 3 or 4 years, the high-grade uranium fuel in a nuclear reactor becomes spent, useless, and must be replaced. This involves replacing about a third of the reactor’s fuel rods that contain the spent fuel. This involves replacing about a third of the reactor’s fuel rods that contain the spent fuel. After several years of cooling, they can be transferred to dry casks made of metal alloys and concrete. After several years of cooling, they can be transferred to dry casks made of metal alloys and concrete. A 2005 study by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences warned that the intensely radioactive waste storage pools and dry casks are vulnerable to sabotage or terrorist attack. A 2005 study by the U.S. National Academy of Sciences warned that the intensely radioactive waste storage pools and dry casks are vulnerable to sabotage or terrorist attack.

29. Some sources of energy, such as oil, coal, and natural gas-also called fossil fuels- are used to fuel nuclear power plants. Some sources of energy, such as oil, coal, and natural gas-also called fossil fuels- are used to fuel nuclear power plants. Human use of energy has grown dramatically throughout history. Human use of energy has grown dramatically throughout history. Wood harvested forests was burned to provide energy used for heating buildings and running steam engines. Wood harvested forests was burned to provide energy used for heating buildings and running steam engines. By 1850, Europeans were harvesting firewood faster than nature could replace it, and thus they depleted many of the forests. By 1850, Europeans were harvesting firewood faster than nature could replace it, and thus they depleted many of the forests.

30. Tar sand, or oil sand, is a mixture of clay, sand, water, and a combustible organic material called bitumen. Tar sand, or oil sand, is a mixture of clay, sand, water, and a combustible organic material called bitumen. Developing this resource has major harmful impacts on the land, air, water, wildlife, and climate. Developing this resource has major harmful impacts on the land, air, water, wildlife, and climate. The process of extracting tar sand, consist of using large amounts of water and creates toxic sludge and wastewater. The process of extracting tar sand, consist of using large amounts of water and creates toxic sludge and wastewater. The method of producing this heavy oil takes a great deal of energy-mostly through burning natural gas- and therefore has a low net energy yield. The method of producing this heavy oil takes a great deal of energy-mostly through burning natural gas- and therefore has a low net energy yield.

31. Burning coal and removing pollutants from it produces an ash that contains highly toxic chemicals such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury. Burning coal and removing pollutants from it produces an ash that contains highly toxic chemicals such as arsenic, cadmium, lead, and mercury. One type of ash is what is left over after the coal is burned. One type of ash is what is left over after the coal is burned. Another form of ash containing toxic chemicals is created because of U.S. government regulations that require the removal of harmful air pollutants from the smokestack Another form of ash containing toxic chemicals is created because of U.S. government regulations that require the removal of harmful air pollutants from the smokestack In the U.S., about 57% of the ash is either buried or made into a wet slurry that is stored in holding ponds. In the U.S., about 57% of the ash is either buried or made into a wet slurry that is stored in holding ponds.

32. In 1987, the DOE announced plans to build a repository for underground storage of high- level radioactive wastes on to federal land in the Yucca Mountain desert region in Las Vegas. In 1987, the DOE announced plans to build a repository for underground storage of high- level radioactive wastes on to federal land in the Yucca Mountain desert region in Las Vegas. Some scientists argued that the site should never be allowed to open, because rock fractures and tiny cracks are likely to allow water to flow through. Some scientists argued that the site should never be allowed to open, because rock fractures and tiny cracks are likely to allow water to flow through. The build up of hydrogen gas produced from the breakdown of this water would likely cause an explosion. The build up of hydrogen gas produced from the breakdown of this water would likely cause an explosion. Meanwhile, large amounts of U.S. nuclear waste sit in pools and dry casks and these volume of waste continue to grow Meanwhile, large amounts of U.S. nuclear waste sit in pools and dry casks and these volume of waste continue to grow