1. Transfer of learning in English-for- academic-purposes (EAP) education Mark Andrew James Arizona State University Mark.A.James@asu.edu / www.drmjames.info Sabanci University Freshman English Conference 2014

2. Transfer of learning in English-for- academic-purposes (EAP) education What is learning transfer? Why is it important in EAP education? What kind of learning transfer, if any, occurs in EAP education? What can EAP educators do to help promote learning transfer?

3. What is learning transfer?

11. ... it is the application of learning in new situations. For example: applying what we know about frogs, cows, or noses when we are identifying unfamiliar objects; applying what we know about driving a car when we have to drive a truck for the first time; applying what we know about playing guitar when we are learning to play piano; applying what we learned in math class when we are out shopping.

12. Why is learning transfer important in EAP education? Formal education of any type rests on an expectation that learning will transfer.

13. Why is learning transfer important in EAP education? Formal education of any type rests on an expectation that learning will transfer. In EAP education, transfer is of particular concern.... EAP students are often in or preparing to soon enter academic courses and programs taught in English. So, there is an immediate need for the students to transfer their EAP learning.... but, we cannot assume that learning will transfer.

14. Why is learning transfer important in EAP education?... for example, Thorndike and Woodworth (1901) trained people how to estimate the area of rectangles:... The participants improved during training; but, when they were tested on their ability to estimate the area of a wider range of rectangles, as well as other shapes, they were unsuccessful. 15cm 2 8cm 2 6cm 2

15. Why is learning transfer important in EAP education?... in a physics course, students learned in class how to solve problems like this: How long will it take for this yellow ball to fall from the top of the tower to the ground?... at the end of the physics course, a test had this question: How long will it take for this yellow ball to fall to the bottom of the well? tower ground well

16. Why is learning transfer important in EAP education?... in a physics course, students learned in class how to solve problems like this: How long will it take for this yellow ball to fall from the top of the tower to the ground?... at the end of the physics course, a test had this question: How long will it take for this yellow ball to fall to the bottom of the well?... some students complained about the test: “But we weren’t given any ‘well’ questions in class!” tower ground well

17. What kind of learning transfer, if any, occurs in EAP education?

18. First, we know that EAP learning can transfer in general.... evidence has come from studies of EAP education in institutions of higher education in Australia (Dooey, 2010; Terraschke & Wahid, 2011), Bahrain (Hayes et al, 2011), Canada (Currie, 1999; James, 2006), New Zealand (Basturkmen & Lewis, 2002), and the USA (James, 2010; Leki, 1995; Leki & Carson, 1994; Moulton & Holmes, 2000; Snow & Brinton, 1988; Spack, 1997).... for example, some studies (e.g., Kasper, 1997; Song, 2006) have found that taking an EAP course has a positive impact on students’ overall grades and graduation rates.

19. What kind of learning transfer, if any, occurs in EAP education? Second, we know that this transfer can involve a variety of kinds of EAP learning, related to: reading (Hayes et al, 2011; James, 2006; Snow & Brinton, 1988; Spack, 1997; Terraschke & Wahid, 2011); writing (Basturkmen & Lewis, 2002; Dooey, 2010; Hayes et al, 2011; James, 2006, 2010; Leki, 1995; Leki & Carson, 1994; Moulton & Holmes, 2000; Snow & Brinton, 1988; Terraschke & Wahid, 2011); listening (Hayes et al, 2011; James, 2006; Snow & Brinton, 1988); speaking (James, 2006; Moulton & Holmes, 2000); academic study in general (e.g., managing time [Hayes et al, 2011; Snow & Brinton, 1988], finding sources [Leki & Carson, 1994; Moulton & Holmes, 2000], preparing for tests [James, 2006], and conducting analyses [Currie, 1999]).

20. What kind of learning transfer, if any, occurs in EAP education? Third, we know that transfer of EAP learning: can have a positive impact on the quality of a student’s academic work; (We know less about whether transfer impacts EAP students’ speed or approach with their academic work.) can be prompted but can also be spontaneous; (This is important because spontaneous transfer is more difficult.) can occur across varying distances – when learning and transfer situations are similar (i.e., near transfer), but also when learning and transfer situations are different (i.e., far transfer). (But we don’t know much about transfer to situations that are far in multiple ways.)

21. What can EAP educators do to help promote learning transfer? We can make our courses as conducive to transfer as possible.... for example, since textbooks play a central role in many EAP contexts, we can evaluate the transfer-promoting potential of these books.

22. A tool for evaluating EAP textbooks for transfer-promoting potential

23. An example evaluation (The example unit [Level 3, Listening/Speaking, Unit 1] is available for download at: http://www.cambridge.org/es/elt/catalogue/subject/project/c ustom/item7083083/Academic-Encounters-Sample- Units/?site_locale=es_ES&currentSubjectID=382373http://www.cambridge.org/es/elt/catalogue/subject/project/c ustom/item7083083/Academic-Encounters-Sample- Units/?site_locale=es_ES&currentSubjectID=382373 )

24. Step 1 of 2 “In Unit 1, you will practice the following skills:” “Sharing your opinion” By the end of the unit, what should students be able to DO? (See page 2 of example unit.)

25. Step 2 of 2 “After the lecture Sharing your opinion” This is telling students, by using a label that points to a potential transfer context. 1. How, if at all, does the unit make clear that students can share their opinions outside the EAP classroom? (See page 20 of example unit.)

26. Step 2 of 2 “Example A: I think that Sarah wants to get attention. B:... I think she needs her parents’ attention.” This is an indirect demonstration (i.e., written example of spoken English). 2. How, if at all, does the unit demonstrate how to share opinions? (See page 15 of example unit.)

27. Step 2 of 2 “Share your ideas with your classmates. In your opinion, are these changes in the family structure harmful to society, or not?” Other practice activities: - p.3, p.14, p.20 3. Which activities, if any, require students to practice sharing their opinions? “Sharing your opinion” (See page 5 of example unit.)

28. Step 2 of 2 None. But, here is an example of such an activity related to a different target outcome (i.e., asking and answering questions). “Write one question you would like to ask [these characters].... Role-play the questions and answers with your partner.” 3.1. Which of those activities, if any, require students to pretend to be in some other situation (e.g., outside the EAP classroom)? (See page 11 of example unit.)

29. Step 2 of 2 “Listen to the information... Did anything surprise you?” 3.2. Which of those activities, if any, require students to share their opinions to solve problems? With what content and in what context? None. But, here is an example of such an activity related to a different target outcome (i.e., listening for factual information). (See page 6 of example unit.)

30. Step 2 of 2 “Language for expressing opinions To state your opinion, use: I think / I believe / I feel... In my opinion...” This is generalizing about language product (i.e., formulaic language), and it’s giving students the generalization. 4. What, if anything, does the unit require students to generalize about related to sharing their opinions? How? (See page 15 of example unit.)

31. Step 2 of 2 None. But, here is an example of such an activity related to a different target outcome (i.e., building background knowledge related to a topic). 5. What, if anything, does the unit require students to analogize about related to sharing their opinions? How? “Read the list of aspects of culture. For each aspect, decide if it would be above or below the water level of the cultural iceberg...” This is analogizing about language product (word/phrase meaning), and it’s giving students the analogy. (See page 32-33 of example unit.)

32. Step 2 of 2 “As a class, share the results of your discussions about child-care arrangements and the behavior, skills, and values children should learn. Compare your answers.” This is implicit, because the comparison gives students an opportunity to notice their strengths / weaknesses. 6. How, if at all, does the unit require students to reflect on their ability to share their opinions? (See page 21 of example unit.)

33. Results of this evaluation

35. Conclusion To make EAP courses conducive to transfer, textbooks can be evaluated for transfer-promoting potential.To make EAP courses conducive to transfer, textbooks can be evaluated for transfer-promoting potential. This is worthwhile because EAP learning can but does not necessarily lead to transfer.This is worthwhile because EAP learning can but does not necessarily lead to transfer. Carrying out and publishing research on our efforts to promote transfer from our EAP courses would be a valuable contribution to EAP education, L2 education, and teaching/learning in general.Carrying out and publishing research on our efforts to promote transfer from our EAP courses would be a valuable contribution to EAP education, L2 education, and teaching/learning in general.

36. Thank you! Slides and recording for this presentation will be available at:Slides and recording for this presentation will be available at:www.drmjames.info Feel free to email me with any questions, at:Feel free to email me with any questions, at:Mark.A.James@asu.edu