1. TAKS Review, Objective 2 The student will demonstrate an understanding of the organization of living systems.

2. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Living things are... Made of cells Grow and develop Respond to the environment Use energy Reproduce

3. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Tissues - like types of cells Tissue form organs Organs that work together form organ systems Organ systems that work together make an organism Cells are organized into...

4. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Hydrochloric acid is produced by the lining of the stomach. What is its function? Calories are how the energy contained in food is measured. Amino acids are the building blocks of proteins. ‘Lipids’ is the name for fats and oils.

5. TAKS Review, Objective 2

7. Taxonomy Taxonomy - how to classify life Biological Classification

8. TAKS Review, Objective 2 49 Which of these classifications is most specific? A Family B Genus C Phylum D Order The taxonomy divisions from largest to smallest are: Kingdom (6) Phylum Class Order Family Genus species

9. TAKS Review, Objective 2

10. The Six Kingdoms – the largest groupings of living things Animalia Plantae Fungi Protista Eubacteria Archaebacteria

11. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Animal Kingdom Animal Kingdom (Animalia) Multicellular Heterotrophic Includes all vertebrates (one major phylum) and invertebrates (several phyla) Insects, jellyfish, people…… all are animals

12. TAKS Review, Objective 2

13. Kingdom Plantae Multicellular & Autotrophic ~ all plants perform photosynthesis Examples: mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants (grasses, trees, shrubs, most garden plants, wildflowers)

14. TAKS Review, Objective 2 chloroplast Large vacuole Cell wall – Be careful… Fungi & plants have walls……..

15. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Kingdom Fungi Multicellular & some single-celled Most of these organisms are decomposers Includes mushrooms, yeasts, molds, and infections like athlete's foot

16. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Fungi are eukaryotic. Athlete’s foot Bread mold mushroom

17. TAKS Review, Objective 2 So, how do they DIFFER from animals?

18. Kingdoms of Single-Celled Organisms Protista Eubacteria Archaebacteria

19. TAKS Review, Objective 2 WHY??

20. TAKS Review, Objective 2

21. Kingdom Protista Largest source of food and oxygen for the entire planet. Includes plankton, amoeba, and ciliates (like the paramecium) Described as – unicellular eukaryotes What is the significance of “A?” How do you know that this is not a prokaryotic organism? What are the clues?

22. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Prokaryotic Kingdoms - Cells without membrane-bound organelles 1. Kingdom Eubacteria: Unicellular prokaryotes, often decomposers 2. Kingdom Archaebacteria: Unicellular prokaryotes from extreme environments

23. TAKS Review, Objective 2 8 Some bacteria benefit mammals by helping with — F growth G defense H digestion J respiration Kingdom of Bacteria has beneficial and harmful members The best answer here is H, since digestive systems of mammals contain many bacteria. Bacteria found in the respiratory system usually result in illness, which would trigger the defenses; not help the organism

24. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Binomial Classification Binomial Classification Living things are given a two-part scientific name. The first part is the Genus which is capitalized. The second part is the species name, which is never capitalized. Scientific names are used because the same plant or animal in different places may have different common names. Man’s scientific name is Homo sapiens

25. TAKS Review, Objective 2 12 The bullfrog, Rana catesbeiana, is most closely related to the F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus

26. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Which are closely related? Which are most distantly related? OrganismfamilyGenusspecies Panthera leo (lion) CarnivoraPantheraleo Equus caballus (horse) EquidaeEquuscaballus Panthera tigris (tiger) CarnivoraPantheratigris Felis domestica (cat) CarnivoraFelis domestica Canis familiaris (dog) CarnivoraCanisfamiliaris

27. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Related (in biological terms) means family, genus, species. F spotted chorus frog, Pseudacris clarki G Asian flying frog, Polypedates leucomystax H northern leopard frog, Rana pipiens J African bullfrog, Pyxicephalus adspersus Genus is always a capital letter, species is lower case. Most closely related would be in the same genus, Rana. ANSWER? H

28. TAKS Review, Objective 2

29. The Cell Theory Matthias Schleiden, Robert Virchow, and Robert Brown all contributed to the formation of the cell theory, which states: –1. All living things are composed of cells. –2. Cells are the smallest working units of living things. –3. All cells come from preexisting cells by cell division.

30. TAKS Review, Objective 2 The Eukaryotic Plant Cell

31. TAKS Review, Objective 2 The Eukaryotic Animal Cell

32. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Cell PartFunction Cell Part Function Cell membraneControls what enters and leaves the cell Nuclear membraneControls what enters and leaves the nucleus NucleusControl center of the cell ChromosomesGenetic information in the nucleus Endoplasmic ReticulumTransport system in cell RibosomeOrganelle makes proteins Golgi BodyOrganelle packages proteins VacuoleStores water and/or waste LysosomeBreaks down old cell parts MitochondriaOrganelle for cellular respiration – provides energy

33. TAKS Review, Objective 2

34. The cell membrane has many roles including maintaining homeostasis: structure, regulating transport of nutrients and wastes into and out of the cell, and basic protection of the cell.

35. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Be familiar with the structure and function of parts of cells including bacteria. In biology….always consider FORM & FUNCTION!!

36. TAKS Review, Objective 2

37. Why? The muscle involved (the bicep) will contract (shorten), and raise the upper arm. Choices one and four are bones and cannot cause movement by themselves. Choice #2 is a tendon whose major function is attachment, not movement

38. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Viruses Viruses are different from cells and have different properties and functions.

39. TAKS Review, Objective 2

40. This is the only answer that makes sense…. Why are A, B and D not good choices?

41. TAKS Review, Objective 2

43. Chloroplasts – organelle responsible for photosynthesis Cell Walls – a structure outside of the membrane to provide support Large vacuoles to store extra water Plant cells have….. but animal cells don’t

44. TAKS Review, Objective 2 This is a typical plant cell It contains a cell wall, chloroplasts, a very large vacuole. Why do plants need large vacuoles? ANSWER: This is where food and water are stored.

45. TAKS Review, Objective 2 52 Compared to annual rings of trees that have experienced years of sufficient rainfall, the annual rings of trees that have experienced a dry period will — F be softer G grow at a faster rate H be thinner J photosynthesize at a faster rate These 3 would indicate more water, not less

46. TAKS Review, Objective 2 TAKS question Which structure regulates gas exchange during the processes of photosynthesis and respiration? A Q B R C S D T = stomata

47. TAKS Review, Objective 2

48. The Temperate Forest

49. TAKS Review, Objective 2 The Desert

50. TAKS Review, Objective 2 The Tundra

51. TAKS Review, Objective 2 The Taiga

52. TAKS Review, Objective 2 The Tropical Rain Forest

53. TAKS Review, Objective 2 The Grasslands

54. TAKS Review, Objective 2 By animal By wind Floating in water Mechanisms of Seed Dispersal

55. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Animal Dispersal Barbs get tangled in animal fur and carried to new places. Some animals bury seeds and they grow into new plants. Animals eat fruit, and after digestion the seeds are dropped in new places.

56. TAKS Review, Objective 2 More barbs and hooks…

57. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Dispersal by wind….

58. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Floating on water…..

59. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Explosive dispersal

60. TAKS Review, Objective 2 TAKS question Which of the following characteristics could help short plants survive in areas with limited sunlight? F Broad leaf surfaces G Brightly colored flowers H Thick stems J Shallow roots

61. TAKS Review, Objective 2 TAKS question #4 Which of these characteristics might help a plant species survive in an area with limited sunlight? F Bright flowers G Large leaves H Short stems J Thick cuticles

62. TAKS Review, Objective 2 TAKS question This seed is best dispersed by — A water B birds C wind D insects

63. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Cell Reproduction Cell Reproduction The Cell Cycle is the life cycle of a cell. It has two parts. Mitosis is the process of nuclear division. What is interphase? During mitosis the nucleus separates into two new identical sister nuclei.

64. TAKS Review, Objective 2 26 If a cat has 38 chromosomes in each of its body cells, how many chromosomes will be in each daughter cell after mitosis? F 11 G 19 H 38 J 76 Mitosis is the normal division of any cell nucleus, so the chromosomes replicate exactly and then separate into two identical cells. So the answer is H

65. TAKS Review, Objective 2 When cells reproduce out of control…….. ……tumors are formed. Some tumors are malignant and are called cancer. However, tumors may or may not be malignant. A tumor that is not malignant is called benign.

66. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Transporting into Cells - Passive movement - from an area of high concentration to an area of low concentration is diffusion. The diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane is called osmosis. Diffusion Osmosis is the diffusion of H 2 O

67. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Why? Because this means that water is moving from high concentration (of water) to lower concentration (of water) across the membrane.

68. TAKS Review, Objective 2 What is active transport? Energy is used to move selected molecules into a cell, even if they are at a low concentration (that is….from low to high concentration)

69. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Ways to Maintain Homeostasis Passive transport – no ATP used –Diffusion –Osmosis –Facilitated diffusion Carrier proteins Ion channels Active transport – ATP used –Carrier proteins Cell membrane pumps (sodium-potassium) –Endocytosis –Exocytosis

70. TAKS Review, Objective 2 34 When a sea urchin egg is removed from the ocean and placed in freshwater, the egg swells and bursts. Which of these causes water to enter the egg? F Coagulation G Sodium pump H Active transport J Osmosis Means to clump together – Incorrect Sodium is not being moved – Incorrect The egg would not use energy to do this since it kills the cell. Egg This is the movement of water from an area of high concentration (the fresh water) to low concentration (inside the Egg)

71. TAKS Review, Objective 2 6CO 2 + 6H 2 O  C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2 Carbon dioxide plus Water Produces Glucose and Oxygen This is photosynthesis: SUNLIGHT

72. TAKS Review, Objective 2

73. Plants carry out photosynthesis and cellular respiration.

74. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Cellular Respiration C 6 H 12 O 6 + 6O 2  6CO 2 + 6H 2 O Occurs in ALL living things (In mitochondria of eukaryotes)

75. TAKS Review, Objective 2 The Genetic Code All of the information to make a new cell/organism is contained in the chromosomes of the cell.All of the information to make a new cell/organism is contained in the chromosomes of the cell. Chromosomes are made of tightly coiled DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid.Chromosomes are made of tightly coiled DNA or Deoxyribonucleic Acid. Chromosomes contain genes, each of which codes for a single protein. There may be hundreds/thousands of genes on each chromosome.Chromosomes contain genes, each of which codes for a single protein. There may be hundreds/thousands of genes on each chromosome.

76. TAKS Review, Objective 2 DNA DNA is formed of nucleotides, which have 3 parts; a sugar, a phosphate and a nitrogen base. The 4 different nitrogen bases of DNA are: oAoAdenine oToThymine oCoCytosine oGoGuanine The process of copying DNA is called replication A REPLICA of each side of the strand of DNA is made.

77. TAKS Review, Objective 2

78. The Code of Life The structure of DNA is called a double helix. The base Guanine always pairs to Cytosine. Adenine pairs to Thymine Apples in Trees, Cars in Garages Mutations are caused when these pairings are not made.

79. TAKS Review, Objective 2

80. F Amount of adenine G Number of sugars H Sequence of nitrogen bases J Strength of hydrogen bonds Adenine is only one of the 4 nitrogen bases; it can’t code for anything by itself. Every nitrogen base is attached to a sugar so, G is not correct. Hydrogen bonds strength does not change enough to code for trait changes. 38 In DNA, which of the following determines the traits of an organism?

81. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Transcription... messenger RNA reads the DNA in the nucleus and then leaves the nucleus to take the information to the ribosome. the DNA then wraps back up until next time.

82. TAKS Review, Objective 2 RNA vs. DNA Characteristic RNADNA Strands12 Sugar molecule RiboseDeoxyribose BasesA, U, C, GA, T, C, G Where Found Nucleus and cytoplasm Nucleus only Building block Nucleotide

83. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Kinds of RNA There is only one kind of DNA, but there are 3 kinds of RNA. –Messenger RNA (mRNA) –Transfer RNA (tRNA) –Ribosomal RNA (rRNA)

84. TAKS Review, Objective 2 T ranslation... code into words mRNA takes the code from the nucleus to the ribosome where it pairs with transfer RNA to put amino acids into chains called proteins.mRNA takes the code from the nucleus to the ribosome where it pairs with transfer RNA to put amino acids into chains called proteins. mRNA pairs to tRNA in the ribosomes This protein building is called TRANSLATION. mRNA pairs to tRNA in the ribosomes This protein building is called TRANSLATION.

85. TAKS Review, Objective 2

86. What does this chart represent? It says codons, and has U instead of T, so it must be mRNA. How would you find the amino acid coded by GAC?

87. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Mutations are changes in the sequence of base pairs in the DNA molecule. There is no guarantee that mutations will be dominant or recessive. In fact, the term “homozygous recessive” refers to what would happen if two copies of a mutated gene were present in a cell. In a skin cell where the mutation occurred, this is not the case. Mutations effect DNA, not RNA. However, mutations must occur with the DNA coding region for mRNA codons to affect the skin cell. They would not affect offspring unless they were passed on in a gamete (sex cell). Offspring don’t get their parent’s skin cells; only their gametes.

88. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Following the base pairing rules for DNA (A-T and G-C), AATCGC would have the complement TTAGCG, and run from 5’ to 3’. Uracil (U) is not found in DNA – only in RNA This does not follow the base-pairing rule

89. TAKS Review, Objective 2 53 The table shows a comparison of some amino acids found in cytochrome c. The two organisms in the table that are most closely related are — A Q and TB R and S C Q and RD Q and S

90. TAKS Review, Objective 2 To be closely related means the amino acid composition should be almost the same, since that is what the DNA is coding.  Between Q and T, only 4 levels are the same –  Between R and S only 4 levels are the same –  Between Q and S 5 of the levels are the same, but –  Between Q and R 5 of the levels are the same and differ in the other 2 by a smaller percent. Answer: Not A Not B Not D C

91. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Transcription and Translation

92. TAKS Review, Objective 2

93. What is the DNA base pair rule (Chargaff’s Rule)? 24 If the template of a strand of DNA is 5' AGATGCATC 3', the complementary strand will be — F 3' TCTACGTAG 5' G 5' CTACGTAGA 3' H 3' AGATGCATC 5' J 5' AGACGTCTA 3'

94. TAKS Review, Objective 2 In DNA A to T and T to A, C to G and G to C 5' AGATGCATC 3‘ TCTACGTAG Base pair each letter by the above rule. So the answer is: F

95. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Nothing wrong here………….. The answer is D!

96. TAKS Review, Objective 2 7 cells contain the mutation.

97. Father of Genetics is Gregor Mendel. Dominant traits always are visible, and are represented by capital letters. Genetics – How traits are inherited…..

98. Genetics Recessive traits are hidden unless both alleles are the recessive one (know ~ homozygous v. heterozygous) At least one pair of alleles determines the trait in genetic inheritance.

99. TAKS Review, Objective 2

100. TAKS question: The diagram illustrates the parts of this flower. Which of these parts are not directly involved in sexual reproduction? A Stigma and style B Sepal and pedicel C Anther and filament D Receptacle and ovary

101. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Example: Punnett Square Yy Y y Yy—heterozygous YYYy yy 25% = YY homozygous dominant 50% = Yy heterozygous 25% = yy homozygous recessive

102. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Punnett Squares D D d Dd Dd d d D Dd Dd d dd dd D d D DD Dd d Dd dd D d D DD Dd Heterzygous & Homozygous Recessive Heterzoygous & Heterozygous Homozygous Dominant & Heterozygous Homozygous Recessive & Homozygous Dominant

103. TAKS Review, Objective 2 These percentages are not possible. To get this genotype percentage one of the parents would need to be homozygous smooth and the other parent would need to be wrinkled. The homozygous tall parent is TT for height and the short parent is tt for height. This will give each offspring a Tt genotype for height. Both parents are wrinkled making them ss for this trait. This will give each off spring a genotype of ss for the wrinkled trait. This make 100% of the offspring Ttss.

104. TAKS Review, Objective 2 gg is not possible! Half will inherit long beak from the male (Ll) and half will be short beak (ll) Half, not all will be short beak. Why? All the offspring must have green feathers because all children receive the G gene from the male.

105. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Phenotype is what is seen….. Phenotype refers to what is visible – the dominant trait or the recessive trait. How do you know the phenotype? LOOK!!

106. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Genotype – actual combination of alleles Only 3 possibilities BB = Homozygous Dominant Bb = Heterozygous bb = Homozygous recessive How do you know? Must look at inheritance pattern to find out.

107. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Inheritance of Traits Pedigree—family history that shows how a trait is inherited over several generations. –Helps identify carriers of genetic disorders Carriers—individuals who are heterozygous for a genetic disorder but do not show symptoms—can pass the mutant allele to their offspring

108. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Sample Pedigree Male Female Male with disorder Female with disorder

109. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Pedigree Shows the Family Tree Colorblindness Inheritance Male Parent Male Colorblind MaleFemale Male Male NormalFemale ? MaleFemale Male Colorblind Female Female Parent Carrier P = Father has colorblindness; Mother is a carrier

110. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Pedigree Shows the Family Tree Colorblindness Inheritance XcYXcY XcYXcY MaleFemale Male XCYXCYXX ? MaleFemale XCYXCY XCXcXCXc P = Father has colorblindness; Mother is a carrier

111. TAKS Review, Objective 2

112. Homeostasis … is the maintenance of the normal operating conditions of an organism …control of body temperature, pulse rate, blood pressure, blood sugar, urine output, digestive absorption, metabolism rate, growth rate and hormone levels all need to be maintained…..a “steady state.”

113. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Structural System – 1 (Musculoskeletal System) Bones –Support & give structure –Make blood cells –Allow movement –Muscle attachments –Ligaments hold joints together

114. TAKS Review, Objective 2 3 types of muscles –Smooth, involuntary –Striated, voluntary –Cardiac, heart muscle somewhat like both above Allow for movement Attached by tendons above and below joints Structural System – 2

115. TAKS Review, Objective 2 17 Which structure in the upper arm is responsible for raising the lower arm? A 1 B 2 C 3 D 4 In order to raise it, it must be attached, so its not 1 or 2. 4 is a bone not a muscle, so its answer:

116. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Nervous System Nervous System - 1 Consists of brain, spinal cord, nerves Voluntary - you control and choose Involuntary - allows parts to keep functioning without thought Nerve cells send and receive information.

117. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Nervous System Nervous System - 2 Main parts of nerve cell: –Axon: sends signal –Cell Body: controls cell functions –Dendrite: receives signal from another –Synapse: space between cells

118. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Nervous System Nervous System - 3 Involuntary is controlled by the medulla oblongata of the brain. This is how you keep breathing while sleeping and digest food without thinking about it.

119. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Circulatory System Circulatory System - 1 This system helps to connect many other systems as it provides the transport of substances from one organ to another. Every cell must touch a blood vessel to take in what it needs and get rid of waste. Arteries carry blood away from the heart and veins carry it back to the heart. The heart pumps the blood

120. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Circulatory System Circulatory System - 2 The top parts of the heart receive blood – Atrium/atria The bottom two are very muscular and pump the blood – Ventricle/ventricles Two contractions, right ventricle pumps to the lungs, and the left ventricle pumps to the body and brain.

121. TAKS Review, Objective 2 A circulatory system B integumentary system C excretory system D endocrine system 29 Nutrients from digested food move from the digestive system directly into the — Endocrine system does not transport. So... Excretory system gets rid of waste CO 2 and H 2 O, not food. So.. Integumentary system holds organs and tissues in place. So... The Circulatory System carries everything to every cell, so it is..

122. TAKS Review, Objective 2 25 The medulla, part of the brain stem, reacts quickly to increased levels of CO 2 in the blood and stimulates a response from the — A excretory system B immune system C respiratory system D integumentary system Increased respiration gets rid of excess CO 2.

123. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Immune System Immune System - 1 The immune system protects from infections and illness 1 st Order Non-specific: includes skin, mucous membranes, cilia of trachea and bronchi, stomach acid, tears 2 nd Order: includes the inflammatory response (swelling, redness due to histamine release), fever, white blood cells such as phagocytes and macrophages destroying the pathogens and infected tissue cells. Could also be called first line defense. Could also be called second line defense.

124. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Immune System Immune System - 2 Two main types of immunity: ACTIVE – body makes its own antibodies after being sick - permanent OR a vaccination to help your body make antibodies PASSIVE – injection with antibodies, or transferred from mother to unborn baby

125. TAKS Review, Objective 2 6 Most viruses infect a specific kind of cell. Which of the following are infected by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)? F Helper T cells G Liver cells H GABA-receptor cells J Red blood cells

126. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Ask yourself: which cell type deals with immunity? F Helper T cells G Liver cells H GABA- receptor cells J Red blood cells Answer? Helper T cells. All the rest are body cells with specific jobs that do not relate to immunity.

127. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Plant Systems There are 3 main plant systems: ReproductiveReproductive – this is the flower structure (in flowering plants) TransportTransport – this is the stem and roots and their xylem and phloem EnergyEnergy – this is the leaf and other areas of photosynthesis.

128. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Leaf Tissue Leaf Tissue – What happens where?

129. TAKS Review, Objective 2 Ecology and the Environment NEXT – Ecology and the Environment