1. Philosophical Problems Most philosophical problems are conceptual in nature One way for this to happen is for two beliefs to conflict conceptually with one another

2. Example 1. “There is evil in the world” 2. “God exists” A problem because the concept of God might include “being all good” and “creator of everything.” Thus, it seems prima facie impossible for God and Evil to exist concurrently.

3. Response 1. “There is no God!” (allows for evil) 2. “There is no evil!” (allows for God) 3. A redefining of God or Evil that makes the two concepts compatible One medieval solution: define evil as a lack and then declare that God creates everything that positively exists, whereas “lacks” do not positively exist.

4. What Did it Do? Note that this is a conceptual issue. Redefining “evil” to make it compatible with God is to figure out a way for the two concepts to work together, or to be able to apply in the same conditions.

5. What is “Redefining”? Start with definitions. A definition of X gives necessary and sufficient conditions for a given concept to apply in the world (for it to be “instantiated.”

6. Necessary Conditions X is a necessary condition for Y if and only if If you have Y, then you must have X. If you don’t have X, then you don’t have Y.

7. Necessary Conditions “Being three sided” is a necessary condition for being a triangle. So, If you have Y (a triangle), then you must have X (being three- sided). If you don’t have X (three sidedness), then you don’t have Y (being a triangle). In other words, “being three sided” is an essential part of what triangle objects are. The concept of triangularity cannot be instantiated without “three-sidedness” also being instantiated.

8. Sufficient Conditions X is a sufficient condition for Y if and only if If you have X, then you must have Y.

9. Sufficient Conditions “Being scalene” is a sufficient condition for being a triangle. So, If you have X (being scalene), then you must have Y (being a triangle). In other words, if the property of “being scalene” is instantiated, that is sufficient for us to know that “triangularity” is also instantiated.

10. Once Again To define a concept requires that we give both necessary and sufficient conditions. So we must list (1) what properties must be instantiated if that concept is instantiated AND (1) The properties which, if instantiated, would be enough for us to know that the concept is also instantiated.

11. Criticize These Definitions Politician: a person who deceives others for personal gain. Is this a necessary condition? (can the concept be instantiated without the condition being instantiated?) Is this a necessary condition? (can the concept be instantiated without the condition being instantiated?) In other words: are there politicians who do not deceive others for gain? In other words: are there politicians who do not deceive others for gain?

12. Criticize These Definitions Politician: a person who deceives others for personal gain. Is this a sufficient condition? (can the condition be instantiated without the concept being instantiated?) Is this a sufficient condition? (can the condition be instantiated without the concept being instantiated?) In other words: can one deceive others for gain but still not be a politician? In other words: can one deceive others for gain but still not be a politician?

13. Philosophy Understand the concepts people use by attempting to ascertain the exact conditions under which they would apply (or not apply). So: define concepts. Socrates asked big questions, like “what is beauty?” or “what is the good?” He wants to know “what is the essential nature of these things?

14. The (Dreaded) Euthyphro Problem What is “the holy”? (what are its necessary and sufficient conditions?) Pass #1: Prosecuting someone for murder. What’s wrong with it?

15. The (Dreaded) Euthyphro Problem What is “the holy”? (what are its necessary and sufficient conditions?) Pass #2: What is pleasing to the Gods. What’s wrong with it? (assuming the Greek mythology Socrates and Euthyphro share).

16. The (Dreaded) Euthyphro Problem Pass #3: What is pleasing to the Gods. What is holy is what is pleasing to the Gods. What is holy is what is pleasing to the Gods. The Gods disagree. The Gods disagree. So, it is possible for some X, some Gods will be pleased by it, some will hate it. So, it is possible for some X, some Gods will be pleased by it, some will hate it. So, it is possible that some X has and lacks the property “holy.” So, it is possible that some X has and lacks the property “holy.” Since it is not possible for #4 to be true, some premise in #1 - #3 must be false.

17. Conceptual Analysis 1. Identify a problem. (What is “holiness”?) 2. Propose a hypothesis (“holiness is what is pleasing to the Gods.”) 3. Derive a test implication. So, if true, we are committed to the fact that some things will be holy and not holy at the same time. 4. Perform the test. The concept cannot exist in a world governed by the hypothesis given. 5. Accept or reject the hypothesis. REJECT, since contradictions cannot exist.