1. Ch. 16: Solutions 16.1 Properties of Solutions solubility
16.2 Concentrations of Solutions molarity, dilutions, percent solutions
16.3 Colligative Properties of Solutions vapor-pressure lowering, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation
16.4 Calculations Involving Colligative Properties (SKIP 16.4)

2. Vocabulary Key Formulas
16.1– solubility, solute, solvent, solution, saturated/unsaturated/supersaturated solutions, miscible, immiscible
16.2– concentration, dilute/concentrated solutions, molarity (M), dilution, percent by volume, percent by mass
16.3– colligative property, vapor pressure lowering, boiling point elevation, freezing point depression
Key Formulas

3. 16.1 Properties of Solutions
A sinkhole forms when the roof of a cave weakens from being dissolved by groundwater and suddenly collapses. One recorded sinkhole swallowed a house, several other buildings, five cars, and a swimming pool! You will learn how the solution process occurs and the factors that influence the process.

4. Solution Formation
The compositions of the solvent and the solute determine whether a substance will dissolve. The factors that determine how fast a substance dissolves are
stirring (agitation)
temperature
the surface area of the dissolving particles

5. a) A cube of sugar in cold tea dissolves slowly
a) A cube of sugar in cold tea dissolves slowly. b) Granulated sugar dissolves in cold water more quickly than a sugar cube, especially with stirring.
c) Granulated sugar dissolves very quickly in hot tea.

6. Stirring and Solution Formation
Stirring speeds up the dissolving process because fresh solvent (the water in tea) is continually brought into contact with the surface of the solute (sugar).
Temperature and Solution Formation
At higher temperatures, the kinetic energy of water molecules is greater than at lower temperatures, so they move faster. As a result, the solvent molecules collide with the surface of the sugar crystals more frequently and with more force.
Particle Size and Solution Formation
A spoonful of granulated sugar dissolves more quickly than a sugar cube because the smaller particles in granulated sugar expose a much greater surface area to the colliding water molecules.

7. Solubility
The solubility of a substance is the amount of solute that dissolves in a given quantity of a solvent at a specified temperature and pressure to produce a saturated solution.
Solubility is often expressed in grams of solute per 100 g of solvent.
Some liquids combine in all proportions, while others don’t mix at all.
Two liquids are miscible if they dissolve in each other in all proportions.
Two liquids are immiscible if they are insoluble in each other.

8. Solubility
A saturated solution contains the maximum amount of solute for a given quantity of solvent at a given temperature and pressure.
In a saturated solution, the rate of dissolving equals the rate of crystallization, so the total amount of dissolved solute remains constant.
An unsaturated solution contains less solute than a saturated solution at a given temperature and pressure.
A supersaturated solution contains more solute than it can theoretically hold at a given temperature. The crystallization of a supersaturated solution can be initiated if a very small crystal, called a seed crystal, of the solute is added.

9. a) A supersaturated solution is clear before a seed crystal is added
a) A supersaturated solution is clear before a seed crystal is added. b) Crystals begin to form in the solution immediately after the addition of a seed crystal. c) Excess solute crystallizes rapidly.

10. Factors Affecting Solubility
What conditions determine the amount of solute that will dissolve in a given solvent?
Temperature affects the solubility of solid, liquid, and gaseous solutes in a solvent
Both temperature and pressure affect the solubility of gaseous solutes.
The mineral deposits around hot springs result from the cooling of the hot, saturated solution of minerals emerging from the spring.

11. Solubilities can be determined by looking at tables and charts.

12. Temperature
The solubility of most solid substances increases as the temperature of the solvent increases.
The solubilities of most gases are greater in cold water than in hot.
Pressure
Changes in pressure have little effect on the solubility of solids and liquids, but pressure strongly influences the solubility of gases.
Gas solubility increases as the partial pressure of the gas above the solution increases

13. FYI—not required information
Henry’s law states that at a given temperature, the solubility (S) of a gas in a liquid is directly proportional to the pressure (P) of the gas above the liquid.

14. 16. 1 Review
1. For a given substance, which of the following will NOT influence how fast it dissolves?
a) temperature
b) amount of agitation
c) molar mass
d) size of the crystals

15. 2. The solubility of a substance is often expressed as the number of grams of solute per
a) 100 liters of solvent.
b) 1 cm3 of solvent.
c) 100 grams of solution.
d) 100 grams of solvent.

16. 3. The solubility of a gas in a solvent is affected by
a) both temperature and pressure.
b) only pressure.
c) only temperature.
d) both pressure and agitation.

17. 16.2 Concentrations of Solutions
Water must be tested continually to ensure that the concentrations of contaminants do not exceed established limits. These contaminants include metals, pesticides, bacteria, and even the by-products of water treatment. You will learn how solution concentrations are calculated.

18. The concentration of a solution is a measure of the amount of solute that is dissolved in a given quantity of solvent.
A dilute solution is one that contains a small amount of solute.
A concentrated solution contains a large amount of solute.

19. Molarity (M) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in one liter of solution.
To calculate the molarity of a solution, divide the moles of solute by the volume of the solution.

20. To make a 0. 5-molar (0. 5M) solution, first add 0
To make a 0.5-molar (0.5M) solution, first add 0.5 mol of solute to a 1-L volumetric flask half filled with distilled water.
Swirl the flask carefully to dissolve the solute.
Fill the flask with water exactly to the 1-L mark.

24. Making Dilutions
Diluting a solution reduces the number of moles of solute per unit volume, but the total number of moles of solute in solution does not change.
The total number of moles of solute remains unchanged upon dilution, so you can write this equation.
M1 and V1 are the molarity and volume of the initial solution, and M2 and V2 are the molarity and volume of the diluted solution.

25. Making a Dilute Solution

28. To prepare 100 ml of 0. 40M MgSO4 from a stock solution of 2
To prepare 100 ml of 0.40M MgSO4 from a stock solution of 2.0M MgSO4, a student first measures 20 mL of the stock solution with a 20-mL pipet.
She then transfers the 20 mL to a 100-mL volumetric flask.
c) Finally she carefully adds water to the mark to make 100 mL of solution.

29. Volume-Measuring Devices
volumetric flask
buret
graduated cylinder
pipette

31. Percent Solutions
The concentration of a solution in percent can be expressed in two ways: as the ratio of the volume of the solute to the volume of the solution or as the ratio of the mass of the solute to the mass of the solution.

32. Concentration in Percent (Volume/Volume)
Isopropyl alcohol (2-propanol) is sold as a 91% solution. This solution consist of 91 mL of isopropyl alcohol mixed with enough water to make 100 mL of solution.

35. Concentration in Percent (Mass/Mass)

36. 16.2 Review
1. To make a 1.00M aqueous solution of NaCl, 58.4 g of NaCl are dissolved in
a) 1.00 liter of water.
b) enough water to make 1.00 liter of solution
c) 1.00 kg of water.
d) 100 mL of water.

37. 2. What mass of sodium iodide (NaI) is contained in 250 mL of a 0
2. What mass of sodium iodide (NaI) is contained in 250 mL of a 0.500M solution?
a) 150 g
b) 75.0 g
c) 18.7 g
d) 0.50 g

38. 3. Diluting a solution does NOT change which of the following?
a) concentration
b) volume
c) milliliters of solvent
d) moles of solute

39. 4. In a 2000 g solution of glucose that is labeled 5
4. In a 2000 g solution of glucose that is labeled 5.0% (m/m), the mass of water is
a) 2000 g.
b) 100 g.
c) 1995 g.
d) 1900 g.

40. 16.3 Colligative Properties of Solutions
The wood frog is a remarkable creature because it can survive being frozen. Scientists believe that a substance in the cells of this frog acts as a natural antifreeze, which prevents the cells from freezing. You will discover how a solute can change the freezing point of a solution.

41. Colligative Properties
A property that depends only upon the number of solute particles, and not upon their identity, is called a colligative property.
Three important colligative properties of solutions are
vapor-pressure lowering
boiling-point elevation
freezing-point depression

42. a) In a pure solvent, equilibrium is established between the liquid and the vapor.
b) In a solution, solute particles reduce the number of free solvent particles able to escape the liquid. Equilibrium is established at a lower vapor pressure.
Vapor pressure lowering--The decrease in a solution’s vapor pressure is proportional to the number of particles the solute makes in solution.

43. a) Three moles of glucose dissolved in water produce 3 mol of particles because glucose does not dissociate.
b) Three moles of sodium chloride dissolved in water produce 6 mol of particles because each formula unit of NaCl dissociates into two ions.
3 moles Na+ and 3 moles Cl-

44. c) Three moles of calcium chloride dissolved in water produce 9 mol of particles because each formula unit of CaCl2 dissociates into three ions.
3 moles Ca2+ and 3 moles 2 Cl- which is 3 moles Ca2+ and 6 moles Cl-

45. Freezing-Point Depression
The difference in temperature between the freezing point of a solution and the freezing point of the pure solvent is the freezing-point depression.
The magnitude of the freezing-point depression is proportional to the number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent and does not depend upon their identity.
The freezing-point depression of aqueous solutions makes walks and driveways safer when people sprinkle salt on icy surfaces to make ice melt. The melted ice forms a solution with a lower freezing point than that of pure water.

46. Boiling-Point Elevation
The difference in temperature between the boiling point of a solution and the boiling point of the pure solvent is the boiling-point elevation.
The same antifreeze added to automobile engines to prevent freeze-ups in winter, protects the engine from boiling over in summer.
The magnitude of the boiling-point elevation is proportional to the number of solute particles dissolved in the solvent.
The boiling point of water increases by 0.512°C for every mole of particles that the solute forms when dissolved in 1000 g of water.

47. 16.3 Review 1.Which of the following is NOT a colligative property of
a) vapor-pressure lowering
b) freezing-point depression
c) boiling-point elevation
d) solubility elevation

48. 2. Choose the correct word for the space: The magnitude of each colligative property of solutions is proportional to the __________ solute dissolved in the solution.
a) type of
b) number of particles of
c) molar volume of
d) particle size of the

49. 3. The decrease in vapor pressure when a solute is added to a liquid is due to
a) attractive forces between solvent particles.
b) repulsion of the solute particles by the solvent particles.
c) dissociation of the solvent particles.
d) attractive forces between solvent and solute particles.

50. 4.You have 500 mL of 1M solutions of NaCl, Na2SO4, Na3PO4, and Al2(SO4)3. Which solution will have the highest boiling point?
a) NaCl(aq)
b) Na2SO4(aq)
c) Na3PO4(aq)
d) Al2(SO4)3(aq)

51. Ch. 16—What you need to know
Vocabulary (miscible, immiscible, dilute, concentrated)
Preparing Solutions lab
Solution formation (stirring, temperature, particle size, solute, solvent, solution)
Solubility (saturated, unsaturated, supersaturated; g / 100 g solvent)
Molarity (know this!!)
Dilution (know this!!)
% solutions (mass, volume)
colligative properties (vapor-pressure lowering, freezing point depression, boiling point elevation)

52. Practice Problems 1. Use the chart to answer the questions:
a) What is the solubility of NH4Cl at 70C?
b) At what temperature is the solubility of
KNO3 60g KNO3/100g H2O?
 2. A solution has a volume of 1.75 L and contains 50. g of glucose (C6H12O6). What is the molarity of the solution?
3. How many moles of solute are in 380 mL of 1.8 M CaCl2? How many grams is this?
4. A bottle of the antiseptic hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is labeled 3.0% (v/v). How many mL of H2O2 are in the 600. mL bottle of this solution?
5. How many grams of K2SO4 would you need to prepare 1500 g of 4% K2SO4 (m/m) solution?
6. Why might calcium chloride spread on icy roads be more effective at melting ice than an equal amount of sodium chloride?

53. 16.4 SKIP!!!!!!
Cooking instructions often call for the addition of a small amount of salt to the cooking water. Dissolved salt elevates the boiling point of water. You will learn how to calculate the amount the boiling point of the cooking water rises.

54. Molality and Mole Fraction
The unit molality and mole fractions are two additional ways in which chemists express the concentration of a solution.
The unit molality (m) is the number of moles of solute dissolved in 1 kilogram (1000 g) of solvent. Molality is also known as molal concentration.

55. To make a 0. 500m solution of NaCl, use a balance to measure 1
To make a 0.500m solution of NaCl, use a balance to measure kg of water and add mol (29.3 g) of NaCl.

56. Ethlylene Glycol (EG) is added to water as antifreeze.

59. The mole fraction of a solute in a solution is the ratio of the moles of that solute to the total number of moles of solvent and solute.
In a solution containing nA mol of solute A and nB mol of solvent B (XB), the mole fraction of solute A (XA) and the mole fraction of solvent B (XB) can be expressed as follows.