1. Philosophy of science in a nutshell Kareem Khalifa Middlebury College Department of Philosophy

2. How do we know anything? Rough philosophical idea: Knowledge is justified true belief Rough philosophical idea: Knowledge is justified true belief How do you know? = What is your justification? How do you know? = What is your justification?

3. How do we know anything in science? How are scientific claims justified? How are scientific claims justified? Rough idea: A scientific claim is justified if it provides the best fit between theory and data. Rough idea: A scientific claim is justified if it provides the best fit between theory and data.

4. How do theories fit with data? A theory fits with data if: A theory fits with data if: –The theory predicts the data –The theory retrodicts the data –The theory explains the data –The theory facilitates observation of the data –The theory facilitates control of the data

5. What makes one fit better than another? The “theoretical virtues” The “theoretical virtues” –Power/scope/consilience –Consistency –Accuracy –Simplicity –Fruitfulness –Continuity with existing theory (conservatism)

6. How do we know anything in the natural sciences? We are justified in believing a natural scientific claim p if and only if p promotes a more consistent, simple, accurate, and fruitful theory that yields greater predictive, retrodictive, explanatory, observational, and manipulative success and is continuous with existing theories also exhibiting these virtues. We are justified in believing a natural scientific claim p if and only if p promotes a more consistent, simple, accurate, and fruitful theory that yields greater predictive, retrodictive, explanatory, observational, and manipulative success and is continuous with existing theories also exhibiting these virtues.

7. Is scientific knowledge attainable? Why is having good justification for a scientific claim a good reason for that claim to be true? Why is having good justification for a scientific claim a good reason for that claim to be true?

8. Three views on the truth of science Realism: If good justification doesn’t entail truth, the success of science would be a miracle. Realism: If good justification doesn’t entail truth, the success of science would be a miracle. Empiricism: Only claims about observable entities can be true; claims about theoretical unobservable entities can be useful but false at no loss Empiricism: Only claims about observable entities can be true; claims about theoretical unobservable entities can be useful but false at no loss Social constructivism: No scientific claims need to be true; scientific success is culturally relative (not unlike artistic success) Social constructivism: No scientific claims need to be true; scientific success is culturally relative (not unlike artistic success)