1. What is a Behavior? 1) Observable 2) Definable 3) Measurable
- frequency (how often does it occur?)
- duration (how long does it occur?)

3. Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches
Learning is a relatively permanent change in behavior that occurs through experience. There are five major approaches to learning. 3

4. Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches
Behaviorism: Behavior is explained by observable experiences.
Mental Processes The observable thoughts, feelings, and motives that we experience
Associative Learning that two
Learning events are connected
Cognitive: Includes social cognitive, information processing, cognitive constructivist, and social constructivist 4

5. Contiguity or Associated Learning
Learning by simple associations: Pairing
Stimulus → Response
Examples:
Golden Arches = McDonalds
Times tables (7 X 8 = 56)
States & capitals (Lansing, MI)

6. Classical or Pavlovian Conditioning
We learn to associate two stimuli

7. Behavioral and Social Cognitive Approaches
Approaches to
Learning
Classical
Conditioning
Operant
Conditioning 7

8. Classical Conditioning
Ivan Pavlov
Russian physician/ neurophysiologist
Nobel Prize in 1904
studied digestive secretions

9. Behavioral Approaches
Classical Conditioning is a type of learning in which an organism learns to connect or associate stimuli. A neutral stimulus becomes associated with a meaningful stimulus and acquires the capacity to elicit a similar response. 9

10. Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)
stimulus that unconditionally--automatically and naturally--triggers a response
Unconditioned Response (UCR)
unlearned, naturally occurring response to the unconditioned stimulus
salivation when food is in the mouth

11. Classical Conditioning
Conditioned Stimulus (CS)
originally irrelevant stimulus that, after association with an unconditioned stimulus, comes to trigger a conditioned response
Conditioned Response (CR)
learned response to a previously neutral conditioned stimulus

12. Acquisition The CS needs to come half a second before
the US to cause acquisition.

13. When Christina was a baby, her parents would drive her around in the car to get her to fall asleep because the feeling of motion automatically made her drowsy. As an adult, Christina feels drowsy whenever she sits in a car, even when it is not moving.
What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)? _________________________________
What is the unconditioned response (UR)? _________________________________
What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)? ___________________________________
What is the conditioned response (CR)? ___________________________________

14. Whenever Jim’s father drinks too much, he gets very violent and beats Jim severely. This has happened on several occasions. Now, just the smell of beer makes Jim fearful.
What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)? _________________________________
What is the unconditioned response (UR)? _________________________________
What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)? ___________________________________
What is the conditioned response (CR)? ___________________________________

15. The Troublesome Shower (example of an acquired behavior via CC)
Martin is taking a shower in the men’s locker room after working out. While in the shower he hears someone flush a toilet. Suddenly, very hot water rushes out of the shower head causing Martin to get slightly burnt. As he continues to shower, he hears another toilet flushing and immediately jumps out from under the shower head.
What is the unconditioned stimulus (US)? _________________________________
What is the unconditioned response (UR)? _________________________________
What is the conditioned stimulus (CS)? ___________________________________
What is the conditioned response (CR)? ___________________________________

16. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning
Unconditioned Stimulus
Unconditioned Response
causes an
Unconditioned Stimulus
Neutral Stimulus + =
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Stimulus
Conditioned Response
causes a
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

17. Classical Conditioning: An Example
Flash of camera (UCS)
Blinking (UCR)
causes
Camera (NS)
Flash of camera (UCS) + =
Camera (CS)
Camera (CS)
Blinking (CR)
causes
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

18. Nausea Conditioning in Cancer Patients
UCS
(drug)
UCR
(nausea) CS
(waiting
room) CR

19. John B. Watson
recommended study of behavior without reference to unobservable mental processes

20. Conditioned emotional response
Menu

21. Classical Classroom Examples
A first grader feels ill when recess time approaches because he was beat up on the playground the last 3 days in a row.
Certain smells that can elicit nauseous sensations (Hopefully NOT from the cafeteria!)
Speech phobia : cold sweat, shaking knees and hands
Phobias in general

22. Behavioral Approaches Classical Conditioning
Generalization The tendency of a new stimulus similar to the original conditioned stimulus to produce a similar response.
Discrimination The organism responds to certain stimuli and not others.
Extinction The weakening of the conditioned response (CR) in the absence of the unconditioned stimulus (US). 22

23. Behavioral Approaches Classical Conditioning
Systematic Desensitization reduces anxiety by getting the individual to associate deep relaxation with successive visualizations of increasing anxiety-producing situations. 23

24. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory into Practice
Patty does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel anxious. From that point on, she always becomes anxious when taking a math test. As the school year progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other subject areas as well.
Q.1: Identify the US in the example above.
Q.2: Identify the UR in the example above.
Q.3: Identify the CS in the example above.
Q.4: Identify the CR in the example above.
A1: The unconditioned stimulus is doing poorly on the math test.
A2: The unconditioned response is anxiety. Anxiety is a natural response to failure.
A3: The conditioned stimulus is math tests. Once Patty has associated the test with failure, she begins to experience anxiety in response to math tests.
A4: The conditioned response is anxiety.
7.24

25. Pavlov’s Classical Conditioning Theory into Practice
Patty does poorly on a math test. This makes her feel anxious. From that point on, she always becomes anxious when taking a math test. As the school year progresses, she begins experiencing anxiety when she has tests in other subject areas as well.
A: She is experiencing stimulus generalization. She has generalized her anxiety response to similar stimuli—tests in other content areas.
Q: Why would Patty begin to experience anxiety in response to tests in content areas other than math?
7.25

26. Behavioral Approaches
Operant Conditioning is a form of learning in which the consequences of behavior produce changes in the probability that the behavior will occur.
Thorndike’s Law of Effect
Behavior Positive Outcome Behavior
Strengthened
Behavior Negative Outcome Behavior
Weakened 26

27. Operant Conditioning B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)
elaborated Thorndike’s Law of Effect
developed behavioral technology

28. Behavioral Approaches
Skinner’s Operant Conditioning
Operant Behavior - operates (acts) on environment
produces consequences
Consequences (rewards and punishments) are contingent on the organism’s behavior.
Reinforcement (reward) increases
the probability that a behavior will occur.
Punishment decreases the probability
that a behavior will occur. 28

29. Reinforcement Examples
Primary Reinforcers:
Food
Water
Warmth
Security
Sex
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

30. Reinforcement Examples
Secondary Reinfocers
Money
Grades
Stars
Praise
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

31. Types of Reinforcement
Positive reinforcement – giving something that the person wants that increases the behavior
Examples:
Praise
Teacher attention
Rewards
Negative reinforcement – taking away something that the person does not want that increases the behavior
Chores
Taking away time-out

32. Types of Punishment
Presentation Punishment (type I) – giving something that the person does not want that decreases the behavior
Detention
Extra work
Removal Punishment (type II) – taking away something that the person wants that decreases the behavior
Loss of recess
Loss of privileges

33. Behavioral Approaches
Generalization
Giving the same response to similar stimuli.
Discrimination
Differentiating among stimuli or environmental events.
Extinction
Previously reinforced response is no longer reinforced and the response decreases.
One way to deal with a child’s temper tantrum is to ignore it resulting in extinction 33

34. Skinner’s Operant Conditioning Theory into Practice
Nick frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Lincoln often scolds Nick for his behavior. However, Nick’s classmates laugh when Nick makes remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Nick continues with his antics.
Q.1: What is Mr. Lincoln attempting to do when he scolds Nick?
Q.2: Why does Nick continue his antics in spite of being scolded?
Q.3: What are three strategies Mr. Lincoln could try to keep Nick more on task?
A1: He is attempting to present Nick with an aversive stimulus—he is attempting to punish Nick.
A2: Nick’s classmates are reinforcing his behavior by laughing and/or Nick does not mind being scolded. Perhaps he enjoys the attention.
A3: Differential reinforcement—he could reinforce Nick for behaving appropriately
Contracting—he could contract with Nick. If Nick behaves appropriately for a period of time, he would receive some sort of reinforcement
Prompting—he could develop a signal to Nick to get back on task. This could be a frown, a tap on the shoulder or desk, or just making eye contact.
Terminate reinforcement—he could stop giving Nick attention for his behavior (this may not work because it is difficult to elicit the cooperation of the rest of the class to not laugh at something that is funny)
Remove desirable stimuli—Nick may benefit from time-out
Response cost—Nick could lose privileges when he misbehaves
7.16

35. Schedules of Reinforcement
Continuous Reinforcement
reinforcing the desired response each time it occurs
Partial (Intermittent) Reinforcement
reinforcing a response only part of the time
results in slower acquisition
greater resistance to extinction

36. Reinforcement Schedules
Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon

37. Schedules of Reinforcement: Frequency and Predictability
Fixed Ratio: reinforcer given after fixed number of behaviors
Fixed Interval: reinforcement only at certain periodic times
Variable Ratio: reinforcer given after unpredictable number of behaviors
Variable Interval: reinforcement at some times but not others
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

38. Francis sells jewelry to a local gift shop
Francis sells jewelry to a local gift shop. Each time he completes 10 pairs of earrings, the shopkeeper pays him for them. This is an example of a ___________ schedule of reinforcement.
A. Fixed ratio
B. Variable ratio
C. Fixed interval
D. Variable interval
Sandra’s mail is delivered every day at 10:00. She checks her mailbox several times each morning, but only finds mail the first time she checks after 10:00. This is an example of a __________ schedule of reinforcement

39. Vernon is practicing his golf putting
Vernon is practicing his golf putting. On the average, it takes him four tries before the ball goes in the hole. This is an example of a _________ schedule of reinforcement
A. Fixed ratio
B. Variable ratio
C. Fixed interval
D. Variable interval
Paula is an eager third-grader, and loves to be called on by her teacher. Her teacher calls on her approximately twice each period, although Paula is never sure when her turn will come. This is an example of a __________ schedule of reinforcement

41. Role of Consequences: Reinforcement
Premack Principle (“Grandma’s Rule”): promoting less-desired activities by linking them to more-desired activities
“If you eat your vegetables, you may have dessert.”
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

42. Applied Behavioral Analysis Reinforcement: Prompts and Shaping
Prompts: Added stimuli that are given just before the likelihood that the behavior will occur.
─Get behavior going.
─Once desired behavior is consistent, remove prompts.
Shaping: Involves teaching new behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations of the desired behavior. ─First, reward any response. ─Next, reward responses that resemble the desired behavior. ─Finally, reward only target behavior. 42

43. Real World Example Training a cat to use the toilet will involve:
LO Real world example use of conditioning
Real World Example
Training a cat to use the toilet will involve:
Shaping.
Preparing “the training arena.”
Positive reinforcement on a variable schedule.
Menu

44. Operant Chamber Skinner Box
chamber with a bar or key that an animal manipulates to obtain a food or water reinforcer
contains devices to record responses

45. Applied Behavioral Analysis
Applied Behavioral Analysis: Applying the principles of operant conditioning to change human behavior. 45

46. Classroom Uses of Reinforcement
Identify behaviors you want from your students, then reinforce them when they occur.
2. Tell students which behaviors you want; when they occur, reinforce them and explain why the behavior is desirable.
3. Reinforce appropriate behavior immediately.
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

47. Maintenance of Behavior in the Classroom
When teaching a new behavior/skill, reinforcement for correct responses should be:
Frequent
Predictable
When a behavior/skill is established, reinforcement for correct responses should be:
Less frequent
Less predictable
Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

48. Applied Behavioral Analysis Reinforcement
Guidelines for the Classroom:
─Initial learning is better with continuous reinforcement.
─Students on fixed schedules show less persistence, faster response extinction.
─Students show greatest persistence on variable interval schedule. 48

49. Applied Behavioral Analysis Increasing Desirable Behaviors.
1. Choose effective
reinforcers.
2. Make reinforcers
contingent and timely.
3. Select the BEST
reinforcement schedule.
4. Consider contracting.
5. Use negative
reinforcement
effectively. 49

50. Applied Behavioral Analysis Decreasing Undesirable Behaviors
1. Use differential reinforcement by reinforcing more appropriate behavior.
2. Withdraw positive reinforcement from a child’s inappropriate behavior.
3. Remove desirable stimuli through “time-out and response cost.”
4. Present aversive (unpleasant) stimuli. 50

51. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory
Social, Cognitive, and Behavioral factors play important roles in learning.
Self-efficacy: The belief that
one can master a situation and
produce positive outcomes.
Observational Learning occurs when a person observes and imitates someone else’s behavior. 51

52. LO 5.21 Bandura’s classic Bobo doll study
Menu

53. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory P/C Person and Cognitive factors
© 2006 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.
Santrock, Educational Psychology, Second Edition, Classroom Update
Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory B
Behavior E
Environment
P/C Person and Cognitive factors
7.53

54. Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning Bandura’s Contemporary Model.
Retention
Student retention will be
improved when teachers give
logical and clear
demonstrations.
Attention
Students are more likely to
be attentive to high status
models (teachers).
Production
Poor motor ability inhibits
reproduction of the model’s
behavior. Help improve skills.
Motivation
When given a reinforcement,
modeling increases. 54

55. Modeling Violence Children modeling after pro wrestlers
Research has shown that viewing media violence does lead to increased expression of aggression.
Bob Daemmrich/ The Image Works
Glassman/ The Image Works
Children modeling after pro wrestlers

56. Bandura’s Social Cognitive Theory Theory into Practice
Nick frequently gets out of his seat and entertains his classmates with humorous remarks. Mr. Lincoln often scolds Nick for his behavior. However, Nick’s classmates laugh when Nick makes remarks. The scolding rarely has any impact. Nick continues with his antics. After several days of this, other boys in the class begin to get out of their seats and make humorous remarks as well.
A1: They have learned from observing Nick that such behavior results in reinforcement from peers. Therefore, they imitate him.
A2: Since children are more likely to imitate a high status model, we might assume that Nick has high status among his peers.
Q.1: Why do the other boys begin to misbehave? Explain.
Q.2: What does this say about Nick?
7.31

57. Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Classroom Use of Observational Learning
Decide the type of
model you will be
Demonstrate and teach
new behaviors
Use peers as
effective models
Use mentors as
models
Consider the models
children observe
in the media 57

58. Social Cognitive Approaches to Learning
Self-Regulatory Learning
A Model of Self-Regulatory Learning
Self-Evaluation and Monitoring
Monitoring Outcomes and Refining Strategies
Goal Setting and Strategic Planning
Putting a Plan into Action and Monitoring It 58

59. Antecedent – Behavior – Consequence (ABC) assessment procedure
Antecedent – what occurs before the behavior
Behavior – action emitted by child
Consequence – does reinforcement or punishment take place

61. Frequency Recording

67. Time Sampling

68. T: Observation 1 = 20% C: Observation 1 = 80%