1. Genetics and Heredity © Lisa Michalek

2. What is Genetics? Traits are characteristics.  Same hair color, eye color, or skin color. Genetics is the science of heredity. Heredity is the study of the way traits are passed on from parent to offspring.

3. Variation The traits an organism inherits is determined during the life process of reproduction. More variation (differences) are found in sexual reproduction than by asexual reproduction. In sexual reproduction, the offspring resembles its parents but is also different from them.

4. Species and Chromosome Number The chromosome number (species chromosome number) is the same from generation to generation within an organism or species. Every species will have a different chromosome number.  Human = 46  Crayfish = 100  Dog = 48  Cat = 38  Pea = 14  Fruit fly = 8

5. Chromosome Arrangement In a cell, chromosomes are arranged in pairs. A photograph or chart of chromosomes arranged in pairs is called a karyotype.

6. Gregor Mendel Today’s knowledge about genetics is a result of genetic studies started by Gregor Mendel in the middle 1800’s. Because of his work, he is called the “father of genetics.” Mendel did not know about genes, but thought that certain “factors” were responsible for traits passed from parents to offspring.

7. The Gene-Chromosome Theory This theory states that chromosomes (found in the nucleus of the cell) are made of small units called genes. Genes carry hereditary information and are found at specific locations along chromosomes.

8. Alleles Alleles are pairs of genes that carry the same traits and are found at the same locations on pairs of chromosomes. Each chromosome may contain several hundred genes.

9. Inheritance of Traits During fertilization, the male and female parents each contribute genetic information (traits) to the zygote (fertilized egg).  One half of its genetic information from its male parent and the other half from its female parent. Genetic traits are carried in chromosomes.

10. Mendel’s Experiments Gregor Mendel conducted heredity experiments using common garden pea plants. Mendel crossed (mated) large numbers of plants. Mendel concluded that there were traits that always appeared (were expressed) when they were present in an organism.

11. Mendel’s Experiments The purebred plants are called the parent (P) generation. The offspring of a cross between two parent (P) generation plants are called the first filial (F 1 ) generation. The trait that always appears when it is present is called the dominant trait. The trait that is hidden by the dominant trait is called the recessive trait.

12. Genetic Terms Homozygous Trait - Both genes for that trait are the same.  A pea plant with two genes for tallness. Heterozygous Trait - Both genes for that trait are not the same.  A pea plant with one gene for tallness and one for shortness.

13. Genetic Terms Genotype - The genetic makeup of an organism. Phenotype - The external appearance of an organism.  For example, an organism that looks tall can have a genotype that is pure tall or hybrid tall. This is because whenever the dominant trait is present, the organism expresses (shows) the dominant trait.

14. Punnett Squares Step 1. State the key by using the capital letter of the dominant trait to represent the dominant gene and the small letter of the dominant trait to represent the recessive gene. Step 2. Write the cross and show the gametes. Step 3. Draw the Punnett square and place the letters for the egg alleles on one side of the square and the letters for the sperm alleles on the other side of the square. Step 4. Write the results next to the square.

16. Try This Punnett Square In roses, red is dominant over white. 1. What letter represents the red gene? 2. What letter represents the white gene? 3. Cross two heterozygous red roses. Describe the phenotype of the offspring.

18. A Dihybrid Cross In mice, black is dominant over tan and short tails are dominant over long. Write the genotype for a heterozygous black, short- tailed mouse.  B = black  b = tan  S = short tails  s = long tails

19. A Dihybrid Cross B b S s = heterozygous black, short What are the possible gametes for this mouse? Each gamete must have one “B” and one “S”

20. A Dihybrid Cross Describe the phenotype of the offspring. Black, Short-tail 9 Black, Long-tail 3 Tan, Short-tail 3 Tan, Long-tail 1

21. Gene Linkage Today, we now know that traits are not all inherited independently of each other. Scientists have found that traits that are located on the same chromosome tend to be inherited together. Traits located on the same chromosome are said to show linkage.

22. Crossing-Over Although linked genes are generally inherited together, they can become separated by crossing-over, which may occur during a stage of meiosis. During this stage, the four chromatids sometimes twist around each other. As they separate, the chromatids may break, exchange segments, and rejoin.

23. Incomplete Dominance Incomplete dominance or blending inheritance occurs when the offspring shows traits that are a blend or mix of the two parents.

24. Inheritance of Sex Your sex (male or female) was determined when your mother’s egg was fertilized by your father’s sperm. Humans have one pair of chromosomes, called the sex chromosomes. Sex chromosomes are represented as X and Y. Egg cells have only X chromosomes while sperm carry either an X or a Y chromosome. At fertilization, two X chromosomes produce a female (XX). An X chromosome and a Y chromosome produce a Male (XY). In most organisms, it is the sperm that determines the sex of the offspring.

25. Sex-Linked Inheritance The Y chromosome is smaller than the X chromosome. Several of the genes found on the X chromosome are not found on the Y chromosome. The genes on the X chromosome that have no matching genes on the Y chromosome are called sex-Linked genes. Sex-linked genes are usually recessive.

26. Sex-Linked Inheritance Two human diseases associated with sex-linked genes are hemophilia (blood does not clot properly) and color blindness. Both of these disorders are more common in males than in females.  This is because the sex-linked recessive gene on the male’s X chromosome is the only gene the male has for the sex-linked trait. A female will not have hemophilia, color blindness or any other sex-lined condition, as long as she has one normal gene for the trait.  Females who have one recessive gene for a sex-linked trait are called “carriers” for that trait.  That means they do not have the disorder, but they carry the recessive gene.  Children of carriers can inherit the sex-linked gene.

27. Sex-Linked Inheritance