1. Chapter 17 The Eighteenth Century: The Age of Enlightenment

2. The Age of Enlighenment in Europe The Age of Enlightenment in Europe 1. Among the first scientific societies was the Academy of Experiments founded in Florence in 1657 by two of Galileo's students and patronized by the Medicis. It had laboratory facilities to carry out experiments. 2. The English Royal Society evolved out of the informal gatherings of scientists at London and Oxford in the 1640s. In 1662 it was chartered by Charles II but received little state support. 3. The French Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris grew out of informal scientific meetings in the 1650s and was formally recognized by Louis XIV in 1666. It received extensive state support and remained under state control. Members were appointed and paid salaries by the state. 4. The construction of observatories in 1675 at Paris and at Greenwich in England greatly facilitated research in astronomy. 5. The Scientific Academy was created in Berlin by the elector of Brandenburg in 1700. Sponsored by the government, it was devoted to the betterment of the state. 6. Beginning in 1665 the Journal de Savants was published weekly in Paris providing general scientific knowledge and results of experiments. The English Royal Society began publishing Philosophical Transactions in 1665. With a focus upon practicing scientists, it published papers of its members and learned correspondence. 7. Amsterdam had been a center of publishing since the seventeenth century. 8. The Enlightenment in Sweden centered on the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences established in 1741, Linnaeus's Botanical Gardens created at Uppsala in 1741, and the Swedish Academy established in 1786 at Stockholm. 9. More books were written in the eighteenth century on education than all previous centuries combined. In general, there was discontent with the control of education by the clergy which gave rise to a demand that there be state regulation and inspection of educational facilities. By the second half of the eighteenth century, new schools were established in Prussia, Belgium, Austria, and Russia. These schools taught practical subjects suited to the interests of the people. 10. In teaching medicine, the University of Leiden in the Netherlands became the leading university in the eighteenth century. Also of importance were Edinbugh University in Scotland and a new medical school founded in Vienna. 11. Emperors, kings, and princes throughout Europe sought to demonstrate their wealth and power by building palaces imitating the estate of the French king at Versailles. While they reproduced the size, the style was Baroque-Rococo which blended into the whole building sculptured figures as well as wall and ceiling paintings. Question: 1. How did the universities represent centers of dissemination for the Enlightenment? The Age of Enlightenment in Europe 1. Among the first scientific societies was the Academy of Experiments founded in Florence in 1657 by two of Galileo's students and patronized by the Medicis. It had laboratory facilities to carry out experiments. 2. The English Royal Society evolved out of the informal gatherings of scientists at London and Oxford in the 1640s. In 1662 it was chartered by Charles II but received little state support. 3. The French Royal Academy of Sciences in Paris grew out of informal scientific meetings in the 1650s and was formally recognized by Louis XIV in 1666. It received extensive state support and remained under state control. Members were appointed and paid salaries by the state. 4. The construction of observatories in 1675 at Paris and at Greenwich in England greatly facilitated research in astronomy. 5. The Scientific Academy was created in Berlin by the elector of Brandenburg in 1700. Sponsored by the government, it was devoted to the betterment of the state. 6. Beginning in 1665 the Journal de Savants was published weekly in Paris providing general scientific knowledge and results of experiments. The English Royal Society began publishing Philosophical Transactions in 1665. With a focus upon practicing scientists, it published papers of its members and learned correspondence. 7. Amsterdam had been a center of publishing since the seventeenth century. 8. The Enlightenment in Sweden centered on the Swedish Royal Academy of Sciences established in 1741, Linnaeus's Botanical Gardens created at Uppsala in 1741, and the Swedish Academy established in 1786 at Stockholm. 9. More books were written in the eighteenth century on education than all previous centuries combined. In general, there was discontent with the control of education by the clergy which gave rise to a demand that there be state regulation and inspection of educational facilities. By the second half of the eighteenth century, new schools were established in Prussia, Belgium, Austria, and Russia. These schools taught practical subjects suited to the interests of the people. 10. In teaching medicine, the University of Leiden in the Netherlands became the leading university in the eighteenth century. Also of importance were Edinbugh University in Scotland and a new medical school founded in Vienna. 11. Emperors, kings, and princes throughout Europe sought to demonstrate their wealth and power by building palaces imitating the estate of the French king at Versailles. While they reproduced the size, the style was Baroque-Rococo which blended into the whole building sculptured figures as well as wall and ceiling paintings. Question: 1. How did the universities represent centers of dissemination for the Enlightenment?

3. The Enlightenment “Dare to know” – Immanual Kant Scientific method to understand life Paths to Enlightenment  Popularization of Science  Bernard de Fontenelle (1657-1757)  Legacy of Locke and Newton  Newton – reasoning could discover natural laws that govern politics, economics justice, religion, and the arts  Locke, Essay Concerning Human Understanding – knowledge derived from the environment

4. Philosophes and their Ideas  Desire to change the world  Call for freedom of expression  Pierre Bayle (1647-1706)  Attacked superstition, religious intolerance, dogmatism  Impact of Travel Literature  Charles de Secondat, baron de Montesquieu (1689-1755)  Persian Letters, 1721  Attacks traditional religion, advocacy of religious toleration, denunciation of slavery, use of reason

5.  The Spirit of the Laws, 1748  Natural laws  Three kinds of government – republic, monarchy, despotism  Separation of powers – a mistake  Francois-Marie Arouet, Voltaire (1694-1778)  Philosophic Letters on the English, 1733  Criticism of traditional religion  Calas affair  Deism  Denis Diderot (1713-1784)  Encyclopedia, 28 volumes

6.  François Quesnay (1694-1774)  Physiocrat – natural economic laws  Land constitutes wealth  Rejection of mercantilism  “Science of Man”  David Hume (1711-1776)  Treatise on Human Nature  Systematized common sense

7.  Adam Smith (1723-1790)  The Wealth of Nations  Attack on mercantilism  Advocate of free trade  Labor constitutes wealth  “Passive policeman”  Later Enlightenment  Paul d’Holbach (1723-1789)  Doctrine of atheism and materialism  Marie-Jean de Condorcet (1743-1794)  Humans have progressed through nine stages of history  Tenth stage of perfection

8.  Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)  Discourse on the Origins of the Inequality of Mankind  Preservation of private property  Social Contract  Harmonize individual liberty with governmental authority  General Will  Emile  Education

9.  “Woman Question”  Mary Astell (1666-1731)  Better education and equality in marriage  Mary Wollstonecraft  Vindication of the Rights of Woman  Subjection of women by men wrong Social Environment of the Philosophes  Salons  Marie-Thérèse de Geoffrin (1699-1777)  Marquise du Deffand (1697-1780)  Other means for spreading the Enlightenment

10. Culture and Society in an Age of Enlightenment Innovations in Art, Music, and Literature  Rococo Art  Antoine Watteau (1684-1721)  Fragility and transitory nature of pleasure, love, and life  Giovanni Battista Tiepolo (1696-1770)  Enchantment and exuberance  Balthasar Neumann (1687-1753)  Secular and spiritual interchangeable  Jacques-Louis David (1748-1825)  Neoclassicism

11. Development of Music  Johann Sebastian Bach (1685-1750)  Gerge Frederick Handel (1685-1759)  Franz Joseph Haydn (1732-1809)  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart (1756-1791) Development of the Novel  Samuel Richardson (1689-1761)  Henry Fielding (1707-1754) Writing History  Voltaire  Edward Gibbon

12. High Culture of the Eighteenth Century  Increased readership; newspapers and magazines  Education and Universities Crime and Punishment  Cesare Beccaria (1738-1794), Crime and Punishment  Punishment should serve only as deterrents World of Medicine  Emphasize clinical experience  Medical practitioners Popular Culture  Festivals, Carnivals, and Fairs  Chapbooks and Almanacs  Primary education for the masses

13. Religion and the Churches The Institutional Church  Church-State relations  The Jesuits Toleration and Religious Minorities Toleration and the Jews  Ashkenazic Jews  Sephardic Jews  Some Enlightenment thinkers favored acceptance of the Jews  Joseph II

14. Popular Religion  Catholic Piety  Patron saints  Protestant Revivalism  Moravian Brothers  John Wesley (1703-1791), Methodist societies