1. Geological Time Scale & Global Properties ASTR 4: Life in the Universe

2. Outline Radiometric Dating Global Properties Geologic Time Scale & Evolution of Life Tree of Life

3. Radiometric Dating Isotopes which are unstable are said to be radioactive. They spontaneously change in to another isotope in a process called radioactive decay. –protons convert to neutrons –neutrons convert to protons The time it takes half the amount of a radioactive isotope to decay is called its half life. By knowing rock chemistry, we chose a stable isotope which does not form with the rock…its presence is due solely to decay. Measuring the relative amounts of the two isotopes and knowing the half life of the radioactive isotope tells us the age of the rock.

6. The Age of our Solar System Radiometric dating can only measure the age of a rock since it solidified. Geologic processes on Earth cause rock to melt and resolidify.  Earth rocks can’t be used to measure the Solar System’s age. We must find rocks which have not melted or vaporized since the condensed from the Solar nebula. – meteorites imply an age of 4.6 billion years for Solar System Radioactive isotopes are formed in stars & supernovae –suggests that Solar System formation was triggered by supernova –short half lives suggest the supernova was nearby

7. Inside the Terrestrial Worlds After they have formed, the molten planets differentiate into three zones: core - made of metals mantle - made of dense rock crust - made of less dense rock Lithosphere - the rigid, outer layer of crust & part of the mantle which does not deform easily

8. Inside the Terrestrial Worlds active geologyinactive geology

9. Heating the Terrestrial Worlds Planetary interiors heat up through: accretion differentiation radioactivity Supplies all the heat at the beginning Supplies heat throughout the planet’s life

10. Cooling the Terrestrial Worlds Planets cool off through: conduction - heat flowing on the microscopic level convection - heat flowing on the macroscopic level (bulk motions) eruptions - hot lava bursts through crust the larger the planet, the longer it takes to cool off!

11. Cooling the Terrestrial Worlds

12. Magnetic Fields Electric charges moving via convection in a molten iron core and spinning acts like an electromagnet  magnetic field Earth has a magnetic field Venus, Mars, & the Moon do not Mercury surprisingly has a weak magnetic field ??

13. Shaping Planetary Surfaces Major geological processes that shape planetary surfaces: impact cratering: excavation of surface by asteroids or comets striking the planet volcanism: eruption of lava from interior tectonics: disruption of lithosphere by internal stresses erosion: wearing down by wind, water, ice

14. Impact Cratering objects hit planet at 10 – 70 km/s solid rock is vaporized a crater is excavated matter is ejected in all directions craters are circular –large craters have a central peak

15. Counting Craters to find Surface Age Cratering rate decreased as Solar Systems aged. The older the surface, the more craters are present.

16. Volcanism Underground, molten rock, called magma, breaks through crack in the lithosphere. Trapped gases are released: H 2 O, CO 2, N 2 Viscosity of lava (typically basalt) determines type of volcano

17. Tectonics & Erosion convection cells in the mantle causes both: compression in lithosphere mountains are produced extension in lithosphere valleys are produced mountains & valleys appear on the surface movement of rock by ice, liquid, or gas valleys shaped by glaciers canyons carved by rivers sand blown by wind erosion not only wears down features, it also builds them: sand dunes river deltas sedimentary rock

18. Atmosphere A layer of gas which surrounds a world is called an atmosphere. they are usually very thin compared to planet radius Pressure is created by atomic & molecular collisions in an atmosphere. heating a gas in a confined space increases pressure number of collisions increase unit of measure: 1 bar = 14.7 lbs/inch 2 = Earth’s atmospheric pressure at sea level Pressure balances gravity in an atmosphere.

19. Effects of an Atmosphere on a Planet greenhouse effect makes the planetary surface warmer than it would be otherwise scattering and absorption of light absorb high-energy radiation from the Sun scattering of optical light brightens the daytime sky creates pressure can allow water to exist as a liquid (at the right temperature) creates wind and weather promotes erosion of the planetary surface creates auroras interaction with the Solar wind when magnetic fields are present

20. Planetary Energy Balance Solar energy received by a planet must balance the energy it returns to space planet can either reflect or emit the energy as radiation this is necessary for the planet to have a stable temperature

21. What Determines a Planet’s Surface Temperature? Greenhouse Effect cannot change incoming Sunlight, so it cannot change the total energy returned to space. it increases the energy (heat) in lower atmosphere it works like a blanket In the absence of the Greenhouse Effect, what would determine a planet’s surface temperature? the planet's distance from the Sun the planet’s overall reflectivity the higher the albedo, the less light absorbed, planet cooler Earth’s average temperature would be –17º C (–1º F) without the Greenhouse Effect

22. Magnetospheres The Sun ejects a stream of charged particles, called the solar wind. it is mostly electrons, protons, and Helium nuclei Earth’s magnetic field attracts and diverts these charged particles to its magnetic poles. the particles spiral along magnetic field lines and emit light this causes the aurora (aka northern & southern lights) this protective “bubble” is called the magnetosphere

23. Earth’s Magnetosphere

24. Weather and Climate These are Earth’s global wind patterns or circulation local weather systems move along with them weather moves from W to E at mid-latitudes in N hemisphere Two factors cause these patterns atmospheric heating planetary rotation weather – short-term changes in wind, clouds, temperature, and pressure in an atmosphere at a given location climate – long-term average of the weather at a given location

25. Four Major Factors which affect Long- term Climate Change

26. Gain/Loss Processes of Atmospheric Gas Unlike the Jovian planets, the terrestrials were too small to capture significant gas from the Solar nebula. what gas they did capture was H & He, and it escaped present-day atmospheres must have formed at a later time Sources of atmospheric gas: outgassing – release of gas trapped in interior rock by volcanism evaporation/sublimation – surface liquids or ices turn to gas when heated bombardment – micrometeorites, Solar wind particles, or high- energy photons blast atoms/molecules out of surface rock occurs only if the planet has no substantial atmosphere already

28. Gain/Loss Processes of Atmospheric Gas Ways to lose atmospheric gas: condensation – gas turns into liquids or ices on the surface when cooled chemical reactions – gas is bound into surface rocks or liquids stripping – gas is knocked out of the upper atmosphere by Solar wind particles impacts – a comet/asteroid collision with a planet can blast atmospheric gas into space thermal escape – lightweight gas molecules are lost to space when they achieve escape velocity gas is lost forever!

30. Tree of Life Three Domains of Life –Prokaryotes (without nucleus) Archaea Bacteria –Eukaryotes (with nucleus) Eucarya Phylogenetic Tree of Life –Carl R. Woese, 1977 –16S ribosomal RNA