1. Ethnography and Observational Methods Hayley Davies DEPS, October 2013

2. What is ethnography?

3. What is an observational method?

4. Defining characteristics of ethnography Methodology (with theoretical and philosophical underpinnings – socially constructed reality; qualitative paradigm). Methodology (with theoretical and philosophical underpinnings – socially constructed reality; qualitative paradigm). Time Time Building a picture of a social reality – observations, documents, artefacts, interviews. Building a picture of a social reality – observations, documents, artefacts, interviews. Immersion in culture Immersion in culture Understanding meanings of rituals, practices, customs, from the perspective of those studied. Understanding meanings of rituals, practices, customs, from the perspective of those studied.

5. What kinds of data does ethnography produce? Written/typed up field diary documenting all aspects of visits to field. Written/typed up field diary documenting all aspects of visits to field. includes audio/visual recordings of participants –if you interview them. includes audio/visual recordings of participants –if you interview them. artefacts and documents collected in field work and the accompanying explanations of them by research participants. artefacts and documents collected in field work and the accompanying explanations of them by research participants. Analytical memos – questions you have generated on your obs, interviews etc which you can follow up. Analytical memos – questions you have generated on your obs, interviews etc which you can follow up.

6. Observations: defining characteristics An aspect of ethnography, a field study, or a stand-alone method; a single method, not a methodological approach. An aspect of ethnography, a field study, or a stand-alone method; a single method, not a methodological approach. Structured or unstructured observations? Structured or unstructured observations? Structured – quantifiable, counting, ticking boxes (see Bryman, 2008) Structured – quantifiable, counting, ticking boxes (see Bryman, 2008) Unstructured observations - interpretive, qualitative approach, e.g. examine gender dynamics of children’s play in school break. Unstructured observations - interpretive, qualitative approach, e.g. examine gender dynamics of children’s play in school break.

7. Ethnographic and observational methods What are the strengths and limitations of each?

8. Practical and Ethical Matters Overt/covert research? Overt/covert research? Need to secure access through gate keeper? Need to secure access through gate keeper? Gain informed consent from participants and from parents/guardians if under age of 16 (assent less commonly used). Gain informed consent from participants and from parents/guardians if under age of 16 (assent less commonly used). How will you ensure people are fully informed? (information leaflets – literacy, language and understanding) How will you ensure people are fully informed? (information leaflets – literacy, language and understanding) How will you ensure individuals can opt out of research (esp in ethnography/obs work)? How will you ensure individuals can opt out of research (esp in ethnography/obs work)? Observational work – easy to forget researcher is there – problem? Observational work – easy to forget researcher is there – problem?

9. Recording Observations: How? Video ethnography? Additional ethical implications (how will you ensure anonymity, confidentiality?) Video ethnography? Additional ethical implications (how will you ensure anonymity, confidentiality?) Write notes on observed actions, interaction, conversations etc. Is this ethically OK? Write notes on observed actions, interaction, conversations etc. Is this ethically OK? Record ‘in situ’ or write notes after you’ve left the observational site? Implications for accuracy of recall. Taking notes = ‘researcher effect’ (change participant behaviour)? Record ‘in situ’ or write notes after you’ve left the observational site? Implications for accuracy of recall. Taking notes = ‘researcher effect’ (change participant behaviour)?

10. Preparing to conduct observations Define boundaries of ‘your field’? Define boundaries of ‘your field’? What will count as data? What will you focus on observing? (guided by research questions). What will count as data? What will you focus on observing? (guided by research questions). What types of data will you record? Might map space, observe interactions, conversations, body language (Becker, 1958), facial expressions. What types of data will you record? Might map space, observe interactions, conversations, body language (Becker, 1958), facial expressions. Emplaced ethnographer...(Pink, 2010) Emplaced ethnographer...(Pink, 2010)

11. Observational Roles Observations often called participant observation (implies observer is also a participant). What difference does this make to data generated? Observations often called participant observation (implies observer is also a participant). What difference does this make to data generated? What kind of participant will you/can you be? What kind of participant will you/can you be? (see Spradley, 1980: 58-62; Swain, 2006). (see Spradley, 1980: 58-62; Swain, 2006). Researching the strange/familiar: what kind of role can you adopt? Researching the strange/familiar: what kind of role can you adopt?

12. Power and Representation Who are your participants? What is their position in society? Who are your participants? What is their position in society? What are the power dynamics of these relationships (see reflexivity)? What are the power dynamics of these relationships (see reflexivity)? Responsibility to represent participants fairly (e.g. Annette Lareau’s research). Responsibility to represent participants fairly (e.g. Annette Lareau’s research). Responsibility for considering how your findings will be used by others – i.e. politicians, policy- makers. Responsibility for considering how your findings will be used by others – i.e. politicians, policy- makers.

13. Reflexivity The ethnographer is the ‘research instrument’ (Coffey, 1999: 2). The ethnographer is the ‘research instrument’ (Coffey, 1999: 2). Focus on the experiential - embodied/sensory/emplaced ethnographic accounts – heightened reflexivity about the role of senses/embodied experiences in construction of social reality (see Pink, 2008; Pink, 2010). Focus on the experiential - embodied/sensory/emplaced ethnographic accounts – heightened reflexivity about the role of senses/embodied experiences in construction of social reality (see Pink, 2008; Pink, 2010). Researcher identity (social class, age, gender, ethnicity, ability/disability, sexuality, generation) will shape your relationships with the researched, the rapport you develop and the data you obtain/have access to – need to be clear about this in writing up your research. Researcher identity (social class, age, gender, ethnicity, ability/disability, sexuality, generation) will shape your relationships with the researched, the rapport you develop and the data you obtain/have access to – need to be clear about this in writing up your research. Coffey (1999) – ‘body work’ – clothes, representation of self to look like an insider in that context/not draw attention to oneself. Coffey (1999) – ‘body work’ – clothes, representation of self to look like an insider in that context/not draw attention to oneself.

14. Analysing ethnographic & observational data Key principle of ethnographic and observational approaches – analysis feeds back into design and generation of new data – not a separate process but a process that becomes more intense in the latter stages of research (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995: 205). What does this mean in practice? Key principle of ethnographic and observational approaches – analysis feeds back into design and generation of new data – not a separate process but a process that becomes more intense in the latter stages of research (Hammersley and Atkinson, 1995: 205). What does this mean in practice? Challenge is to develop an analytic framework that addresses collectively all the different data that ethnographies generate (i.e. written, artefacts, documents) and which allows you to conduct an integrated analysis that looks across your data set rather than analysing each separately. Challenge is to develop an analytic framework that addresses collectively all the different data that ethnographies generate (i.e. written, artefacts, documents) and which allows you to conduct an integrated analysis that looks across your data set rather than analysing each separately.

15. Useful References Calvey, D. 2000. ‘Getting on the Door and Staying there: A Covert Participant Observational Study of Bouncers.’ In G. Lee-Treweek and S. Linkogle (eds) Danger in the Field: Risk and Ethics in Social Research. London: Routledge. Davies, H. 2008. ‘Reflexivity in Research Practice: Informed Consent with Children at School and at Home’. Sociological Research Online 13(4)5 Available online: Davies, H. 2008. ‘Reflexivity in Research Practice: Informed Consent with Children at School and at Home’. Sociological Research Online 13(4)5 Available online: http://www.socresonline.org.uk/13/4/5.html Coffey, A. 1999. The Ethnographic Self: Fieldwork and the Representation of Identity. London: Sage. Geertz, C. 1993. Local Knowledge: Further Essays in Interpretive Anthropology. London: Fontana. Hammersley, M. 1992. What's Wrong with Ethnography: Methodological Explorations. London: Routledge. Hammersley, M. & Atkinson, P. 1994. Ethnography: Principles in Practice. London: Tavistock.

16. Useful references Mason, J. 2002. Qualitative Researching (Second edition). London: Sage. May, T. 2003. Qualitative Research in Action. London: Sage. Pink, S. 2009. Doing Sensory Ethnography. London: Sage. Spradley, J. 1979. Participant Observation. London: Fort Worth. Swain, J. 2006. ‘An ethnographic approach to researching children in junior school’. International Journal of Social Research Methodology. 9 (3):199-213. Tjora, A. 2006. ‘Writing small discoveries: an exploration of fresh observers’ observations’. Qualitative Research. 6 (4): 429-451. Willis, P. 2000. The Ethnographic Imagination. Cambridge: Polity.

17. In groups 1. Discuss your own dissertation research and weigh up which projects would (or would not) be conducive to ethnographic inquiry or to observational methods? Be prepared to share your discussions to the class. 2. Design an ethnographic study (who will be your participants; how will you gain access? What methods will you use? Why? What will be the challenges you will have to overcome?)