1. Slide 1 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. A Topical Approach to Life-Span Development 6e John W. Santrock Chapter Sixteen: Schools, Achievement, and Work

2. Slide 2 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Constructivist and direct instruction approaches –Constructivist approach Emphasizes child’s active construction of knowledge and understanding; reflection and critical thinking Teacher provides support for students exploring their world and developing knowledge Today: opportunities and collaboration stressed Criticisms: not enough discipline, too relativistic and vague

3. Slide 3 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Constructivist and direct instruction approaches –Direct instruction approach Structured, teacher-centered/controlled Criticisms: creates passive learners, few critical thinking challenges –Many recommend: effective teachers use direct and constructivist instruction together

4. Slide 4 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Accountability –State-mandated tests have taken on a more powerful role — No Child Left Behind –Critics argue that they lead to Single score being used as sole predictor Teaching to test; use of memorization Tests don’t measure important skills like creativity and social skills

5. Slide 5 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Schools and developmental status –Early childhood education The norm in many states, private and publicly funded Many ways young children are educated –The child-centered kindergarten Emphasizes the whole child – Physical, cognitive, socioemotional development – Needs, interests, and learning style – Emphasizes learning process

6. Slide 6 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Schools and developmental status –Montessori approach Originally developed for MR children, then for poor Teacher is facilitator Children encouraged to be early decision makers Fosters independence and cognitive development skills De-emphasizes verbal interactions Criticisms vary

7. Slide 7 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Developmentally Appropriate and Inappropriate Education –Developmentally appropriate practice focuses on age/individual (uniqueness) appropriateness Recently: more focus on sociocultural factors –Developmentally inappropriate practice direct instruction, extensive use of drill/practice, relies on paper-and-pencil activities given to large groups Children show slower development

8. Slide 8 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Education for disadvantaged children –1965 – Project Head Start U.S. programs vary for low-income children Proven positive and quality experiences Not all U.S. programs created equal in quality Most successful: well-designed and well-implemented –Controversies in early childhood education Include both academic and constructivist approaches

9. Slide 9 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Elementary education –Change from “home-child’’ to “school-child” –New roles and obligations –Too often, early schooling has more negative feedback; lowers child’s self-esteem –Teachers often pressured to cover curriculum; Tight scheduling; may harm children

10. Slide 10 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Educating adolescents –Transition to Middle or Junior High School Independent from parent monitoring; more choices Physical and bodily image changes, cognitive changes Impersonal structure, multiple teachers, stressful times “Top dog phenomenon” –Benefits More opportunities, friends, challenges, feel grown up More subject choices, intellectual work challenges

11. Slide 11 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Effective schools for young adolescents –Fears: junior highs being “watered-down” high schools, mimicked curriculum, schedules There are biological, psychological differences –Carnegie report: U.S. middle schools: massive, impersonal, and lacking Recommended complete overhaul and changes: more flexible curriculum, more fitness-health programs

12. Slide 12 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Effective schools for young adolescents –High School Concerns about education and students –Needs pathway to student identity achievement – Graduate with inadequate skills – Enter college needing remediation classes – Student drop out rates decreasing today » Ethnic and racial differences » Gender differences

13. Slide 13 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Effective schools for young adolescents –Effective programs that discourage high school dropping out include Bill and Melinda Gates foundation funding “I Have A Dream” program –Projects adopt entire public grade level or cohorts in housing projects; gives college tuition to high school grads Reading, tutoring, counseling, mentoring programs

14. Slide 14 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools College and Adult Education –Transition to College Replays the top-dog phenomenon Many of same benefits found in high school Movement to a larger, more impersonal school Interact with peers of more diverse backgrounds Increased focus on achievement and assessment More opportunities to explore lifestyles and values Many experience more stress and depression

15. Slide 15 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools College and Adult Education –Adult education includes Literacy training, community development University credit programs, on-the-job training Continuing professional education –Women — the majority of adult learners –Occurs in many forms, offered by many sources Individual reasons for attending adult ed/college vary

16. Slide 16 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Educating children with disabilities –Approximately 13.5% (ages 3 to 21) in United States receive special education or related services –Learning disability: Difficulty learning/understanding/doing math Gender differences: “Referral bias”? –Boys are 3x more diagnosed as girls Diagnosis difficult; guidelines vary among states

17. Slide 17 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Educating children with disabilities –Dyslexia: Severe impairment in ability to read and spell Brain scans used; difficulty integrating information –Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) Inattention, hyperactivity, impulsivity; onset in childhood Definitive causes unknown; in DSM-IV Medication is common treatment; other treatments vary Stricter behavioral school rules “illuminate” these

18. Slide 18 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Educating children with disabilities –Autism spectrum disorders Autistic disorder: severe; onset in first three years Asperger syndrome: mild impairments: obsessiveness No proof of being caused by family socialization Affects about 1 million children today

19. Slide 19 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Educating children with disabilities –Public Law 94-142, Education for All Handicapped Children Act; renamed as IDEA in 2004 Individualized education plan (IEP) — written program tailored to child with disability Least restrictive environment (LRE) — child with disability educated in setting similar to where other children educated Inclusion — educating child with special education needs in regular classroom

20. Slide 20 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools Socioeconomic status and ethnicity –Low-income, ethnic minority children face more difficulties in school Schools in poor areas –Underfunded, low test scores and graduation rates –Young inexperienced teachers, largely segregated –Rote learning promoted More minorities put in remedial/special education classes, suspended from school Asians and Whites more likely put in advanced classes

21. Slide 21 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Schools SES and ethnicity –Improving relationships among ethnically diverse Turn class into jigsaw classroom Positive personal contact with diverse other students Engage in perspective taking; reduce bias View school and community as a team –Comprehensive school plan, assessment strategy, and staff development plan –Mental health/support team –Parents’ program

22. Slide 22 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation –Extrinsic Activity is means to an end Often motivated by rewards and punishment –Intrinsic Activity is an end in itself Self-determination and personal choices Personal responsibility for behavior encouraged

23. Slide 23 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation –Developmental shifts Intrinsic motivation increases with age for most –Decreases in early high school Greatest extrinsic increase and intrinsic decrease between sixth and seventh grade –Blamed on impersonalization experiences, increased evaluations (standardized tests) and competition

24. Slide 24 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation –Conclusions Create stimulating cognitive environments Promote more self-responsibility for student learning Some rewards can undermine learning; rewards most effective with high interest Rewards convey mastery information

25. Slide 25 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Mastery motivation and mindset –Mastery Motivation Mastery orientation — task-oriented; concerned with learning strategies Helpless orientation — one seems trapped by difficulty and attributes one’s difficulty to a lack of ability Performance orientation — achievement outcomes; winning matters

26. Slide 26 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Mastery motivation and mindset –Mindset Cognitive view of oneself Fixed mindset: “carved in stone” Growth mindset: belief in change Promotes optimistic or pessimistic outlook Shaping begins due to interactions with others –Growth mindset shows higher achievement results –Self-Efficacy Belief that one can master a situation/have good results

27. Slide 27 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Goal-Setting, planning, and self-monitoring –Self-efficacy and achievement improve when individuals set goals that are Specific Proximal (short-term) Challenging –Can set both long and short-term goals –Expectations linked to outcomes/efforts Setting highest standards that can be achieved is best

28. Slide 28 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Goal-Setting, planning, and self-monitoring –Purpose Accomplish something meaningful to one’s self; contribute something to the world beyond one’s self Teachers, parents convey importance of goals; should discuss where goals lead to (long-term picture) Negative influences –Some TV/media, violent models of aggression/video games, unrealistic views of the world, passive learning, stereotyping, and other distractions

29. Slide 29 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Goal-Setting, planning, and self-monitoring –Purpose Technology concerns for children, emerging adults –Computer and Internet –Online social environments (MySpace, Facebook) –Proper use, restrictions can be beneficial Internet and aging adults –Fastest growing population of users –Search for information, use for fast communication

30. Slide 30 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Ethnicity and culture –Aging and culture Good life based on health, security, kinship network Collectivistic cultures (e.g. China, Japan) have high respect for older persons than individualistic cultures like United States –Possess valuable knowledge, control key family resources, remain “useful,” aging role changes have greater capacity, integrated extended family, role continuity throughout life span

31. Slide 31 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Ethnicity and culture –Socioeconomic status (SES) Grouping by occupational, educational, and economic similarities SES differences are proxy for material, human, and social capital within and beyond the family –SES variations in neighborhoods Affect children’s adjustment: disadvantages/advantages Crime and isolation linked to low self-esteem, distress

32. Slide 32 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Ethnicity and culture –SES differences Lower-SES parents –More concerns with child conformity to society, home of strong parental authority, corporal punishment use and more directive than interactive communication Higher-SES parents –Concerned with delayed gratification, discipline rules discussed with children, less physical punishment, more interactive conversation

33. Slide 33 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Ethnicity and culture –Poverty Challenges of poverty have impact on adult lives 2006: 17% of children under age 18 in poverty U.S. poverty level demarcated by family structure and ethnic lines; minorities overrepresented Psychological impact –Powerless, less financial resources, alternatives are restricted; environmental inequities is damaging

34. Slide 34 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Ethnicity and culture –Families and poverty Links between economic well-being, parental behavior, and social adjustment Feminization of poverty Programs that have made an positive impact –Minnesota Family Investment Program (MFIP) –New Hope Program

35. Slide 35 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Ethnicity and culture –SES, poverty, and aging Older adults in poverty linked to increased physical and mental health problems Poverty among older minorities 2 to 3 times higher Retirement forces reduced income and spending –Expenses, cost-of-living increases –Social security for those over 65 years

36. Slide 36 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Ethnicity –United States is more ethnically diverse than ever before Immigration –High rates impact on ethnic population growth –Special stressors for immigrants (language, changed SES, support system separation, struggle to adapt but preserve ethnic identity) –Acculturation: parents and children often at different stages of the process

37. Slide 37 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Ethnicity and SES –Research unclear due to methods used –Ethnicity and families Ethnic group variations in size, structure, composition, kinship network, levels of education and income Highest risks of poverty –Single or uneducated parents –All parents face childrearing challenges –Greatest harm to children

38. Slide 38 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Achievement Ethnicity and culture –Differences and diversity Historical, economic, and social experiences produce differences between minority groups Stereotyping of perceived deficits are harmful Great diversity between groups seen as “one” –Latinos: experiences of Cubans and Puerto Ricans –Asians: Chinese, Japanese, Korean, Filipino, Thai –Ethnicity and aging Face problems of racism, ageism, and sexism for women

39. Slide 39 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Career Developmental Changes –Young children Idealistic fantasies about what to be when they grow up –High school Serious career decisions as different options explored –College Choose major/specialization leading to work in a field –Early adulthood Start full-time occupation

40. Slide 40 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Career Development –Match personality type to career Realistic: prefer solitude, being outdoors Investigative: interested in ideas, intellectualist Artistic: creative, innovative ways for self-expression Social: helping orientation, desire to be with people Enterprising: dominating, good at persuasion Conventional: detail-oriented, prefer highly structured situations

41. Slide 41 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Career Development –Important aspect of choosing a career — match career to one’s values –Monitoring the Occupational Outlook –Labor force participation of women increasing –Work in Adolescence 90% receive high school diplomas 75% work part-time and attend school

42. Slide 42 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Work in Adolescence –U.S. high school students 75% work part-time and attend school Most work 16-20 hours per week Most work in service jobs –Work more than in other developed countries; less than developing countries

43. Slide 43 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Work –Emerging adulthood Many variations of work patterns exist in merging roles of student and worker Co-op programs, some dropouts, most graduate Transition strongly influenced by level of education Special concern: many attending community colleges but drop out or don’t finish

44. Slide 44 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Work –Adulthood The work landscape National survey: 55% less productive due to stress; 52% considered or made a career change because of stress in the workplace Unemployment Dual-career couples –Males assuming more home responsibilities –Women assuming more ‘breadwinner’ roles

45. Slide 45 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Work –Middle Adulthood Midlife time of evaluation, assessment, and reflection Recognizing limitations in career progress Deciding whether to change jobs or careers Rebalance family and work Planning for retirement

46. Slide 46 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Work –Late Adulthood Percentage of older adults who work part-time steadily increased since 1960s – Good health – Strong psychological commitment to work – Distaste for retirement – Cognitive ability is best predictor Many participate in unpaid work Age affects many aspects of work

47. Slide 47 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Retirement –Option to retire late twentieth-century phenomenon in United States –Today’s workers will spend 10 to 15% of their lives in retirement –Flexibility is key factor in adjustment

48. Slide 48 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. Careers, Work, and Retirement Retirement –Many return to work after retirement — about 7 million in 2006 –Adjustment to retirement varies according to life changes and circumstances –Retirement planning includes more than successful financial planning

49. Slide 49 © 2012 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. The End