2.  Anarchy is only a partial truth. Order is not just maintained through power. Norms, institutions, and interdependence mediate the security dilemma and diminish the significance of military power.  State and Nonstate actors are important entities in international relations.  The state is not a unitary actor. The state is not some reified entity. Pluralists disaggregate the state—break it into its component parts.  The state is not necessarily a rational actor.  International relations cannot be reduced to the primacy of security concerns.

3.  In recent years, a strong trend toward fewer wars has become evident.  For the world as a whole, the current period is one of the least warlike ever, with fewer and smaller wars than in the past.  World wars killed tens of millions and left whole continents in ruin.  Cold War – proxy wars killed millions and the world feared a nuclear war that could have wiped out our species.  Iraq and Sudan and wars like these kill hundreds of thousands.  We fear terrorist attacks, but we do not fear that life on the planet will be destroyed. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

4.  Events in the post-Cold War era continue this long- term trend toward smaller wars.  Today’s most serious conflicts consist mainly of skirmishing rather than all-out battles.  In 2008, war abated in Iraq and worsened in Afghanistan – serious fighting continued in Sudan and Sri Lanka.  Democratic Congo – small scale but brutal fighting among factions since war ended in 1999.  Today there are 13 wars in progress; down from 20 ten years ago.  Consistent trend downward. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

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6.  Realism offers mostly dominance solutions to the collective goods problems of IR.  Alternative theoretical approaches that draw mostly on the reciprocity or identity principles are called liberal theories.  These approaches are generally more optimistic than realism about the prospects for peace.  Evolution: build up of international organizations and mutual cooperation (reciprocity) and changes in norms and public opinion (identity) Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

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8.  What explains this positive trend toward peace?  Kant gave 3 answers over 200 years ago: 1.States could develop the organizations and rules to facilitate cooperation, specifically by forming a world federation resembling today’s United Nations (reciprocity). 2.Peace depends on the internal character of governments-- specifically that republics, with a legislative branch that can hold the monarch in check, will be more peaceful than autocrats (identity principle). 3.Trade promotes peace, relies on the presumption that trade increases wealth, cooperation, and global well-being -- all making conflict less likely in the long term because governments will not want to disrupt any process that adds to the wealth of their state. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

9.  Reciprocity  Kant argued that states could join a worldwide federation and respect its principles.  Remain autonomous  But forego certain short-term individual gains  Kant: International cooperation more rational option than going to war.  To realists, war is a rational option; to liberal theorists, war is an irrational deviation that results from defective reasoning and that harms the interests of warring states.  Neoliberal approach differs from earlier liberal approaches in that it concedes to realism several important assumptions:  States are unitary actors rationally pursuing their self-interests, but they say states cooperate because it is in their self-interest.  Mutual gains better than cheating or taking advantage of each other.  Claim that neorealists’ pessimism is unjustified. States cooperate MOST of the time.  Positive reciprocity Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

10.  Prisoner’s Dilemma – illustrates the neoliberal argument that cooperation is possible.  Both actors lose when they each defect.  Dilemma resolved if they play over and over again – an accurate model of IR  Strategy of strict reciprocity after an initial cooperative move can bring about mutual cooperation in a repeated PD game.  Reciprocity and runaway hostility  Israeli relations with Palestinian militants  Many norms mediate states’ interactions  Diplomatic practices  Participation in international organizations Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

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12.  Set of rules, norms, and procedures around which the expectations of actors converge in a certain issue area.  Participants have similar ideas about what rules will govern their mutual participation.  Regimes can help solve collective goods problems by increasing transparency.  Conception of regime  Combines elements of realism and liberalism  Come into existence to overcome collective goods dilemmas by coordinating the behaviors of individual states.  States continue to seek their own interests, but create frameworks to coordinate their actions with those of other states if and when this is necessary to realize self-interest Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

13.  Regimes do not substitute for basic calculations of costs and benefits by states  Open up new possibilities; more favorable benefit-cost ratios.  Enforcement and survival of regimes  Rely on state power; role of hegemons; but may survive when hegemons that created them decline  Role of permanent institutions such as the UN, NATO, and the IMF  Culmination of liberal institutionalism to date is the European Union (EU)  Stable peace with strong international institutions to bind them Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

14.  Concept grows out of liberal institutionalism.  Refers to the formation of a broad alliance of most major actors in an international system for the purpose of jointly opposing aggression by any actor.  Kant  League of Nations  Organization of America States, Arab League, and the African Union Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

15.  Success of collective security depends on two points:  Members must keep their alliance commitments to the group.  Enough members must agree on what constitutes aggression.  Ex: 1990-91 – Iraq’s aggression against Kuwait  All the great powers bore the cost of confronting Iraq  Iraq: World’s collective security system is “creaky” and not always effective, but bypassing it to take military action also holds dangers.  Concept of collective security has broadened in recent years.  Failed states – weak control over territory – implications for their neighbors and the international system  Domestic politics as international anarchy – need for intervention Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

16.  IR scholars have linked democracy with a kind of foreign policy fundamentally different from that of authoritarianism.  Theory: Democracies are more peaceful than authoritarian regimes.  Not true: Democracies fight as many wars as do authoritarian states.  Democratic Peace:  What is true about democracies is that although they fight wars against authoritarian states, democracies almost never fight each other.  Trend is toward democratization in most of the world’s regions. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

17.  Many liberal theoretical approaches see international outcomes as the result of processes within states rather than simply as those among states.  The actions of a state in the international arena result from individual human choices aggregated through the state’s internal structures. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

18.  Different states maintain different foreign policy bureaucracies, but share some common elements:  Diplomats  Virtually all states maintain a diplomatic corps, or foreign service, of diplomats in embassies in foreign capitals  Political appointees  Career diplomats  Tension common between state leaders and foreign policy bureaucrats  Interagency tensions  Bureaucratic rivalry as an influence on foreign policy challenges the notion of states as unitary actors in the international system. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

19.  Coalitions of people who share a common interest in the outcome of some political issue and who organize themselves to try to influence the outcome  Lobbying  The process of talking with legislators or officials to influence their decisions on some set of issues.  Three important elements:  Ability to gain a hearing with busy officials  Ability to present cogent arguments for one’s case  Ability to trade favors in return for positive action on an issue Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

20.  Huge interlocking network of governmental agencies, industrial corporations, and research institutes, working together to supply a nation’s military forces  Response to the growing importance of technology  Encompasses a variety of constituencies, each of which has an interest in military spending  Corporations, military officers, universities, and scientific institutes that receive military research contracts  Revolving door  Campaign contributions from the military industry Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

21.  Range of views on foreign policy issues held by the citizens of a state  Has a greater influence on foreign policy in democracies than in authoritarian governments  Legitimacy  Propaganda  Journalists as gatekeepers  Importance of the government as a source of information  Popularity of leader and influence on support of war  Referendum Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

22.  In democracies, public opinion generally has less effect on foreign policy than on domestic policy.  Attentive public  Foreign policy elite  Rally ’round the flag syndrome  Diversionary foreign policy Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010

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24.  Conduit through which interest groups and public opinion can wield influence  Presidential systems; separate elections  Legislatures play a direct role in making foreign policy  Different rules apply, however, to the use of military force  Rally ’round the flag  May challenge the president if they have power of the “purse”  Parliamentary systems; political parties are dominant  Often parliamentary executives do not need to submit treaties or policies for formal approval by the legislature.  Call elections; new executive  Legislatures play a key role in designing and implementing foreign policy. Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Longman © 2010