1. Schema Theory of Learning Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

2. Outline Overview of Schema Theory Properties of Schemas Functions of Schemas Application of Schemas to Instruction Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

3. Memory Memories tend to include much inaccurate information Inaccuracies in memory are systematic and predictable Inaccuracies in memory are systematic and predictable Memories depend on prior experience Memories depend on prior experience Illustration: Memory for people in attendance at lecture Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

4. Freeman, Romney, & Freeman (1987) Memory for classroom attendance Who was at last week’s lecture? Who was at last week’s lecture? Error rate 50% People actually in class but forgotten People actually in class but forgotten In-group: 4.7 people Out-group: 8.1 people More organized schema for in-group resulted in more accurate recall More organized schema for in-group resulted in more accurate recall People not in lecture but recalled as present People not in lecture but recalled as present In-group: 2.8 people Out-group: 0.4 people More typical schema for in-group resulted in more false attendances More typical schema for in-group resulted in more false attendances Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

5. Memory Recall depends on: Quality of schema organization Quality of schema organization Better quality, better memory How typical the event How typical the event More typical, more errors Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

6. Pompi & Lachman (1967) Chief Resident Jones adjusted his face mask while anxiously surveying a pale figure secured to the long gleaming table before him. One swift stroke of his small sharp instrument and a thin red line appeared. Then an eager young assistant carefully extended the opening as another aid pushed aside glistening surface fat so that vital parts were laid bare. Everyone present stared in horror at the ugly growth too large for removal. He now knew it was pointless to continue. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

7. 1.Doctor 2.Nurse 3.Blood 4.Scalpel 5.Operation 6.Blue 7.Piano 8.Beautiful 9.Thin 10.Pushed 11.Secured 12.Surface 13.Surveying 1.No 2.No 3.No 4.No 5.No 6.Red 7.Instrument 8.Ugly 9.Fat 10.Yes 11.Yes 12.Yes 13.Yes Pompi & Lachman (1967) Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

8. Schema Schema: Structure for representing concepts in memory Schemata: Plural Schemata: Plural Schema: Singular Schema: Singular Schema Theory: Theory of how knowledge is represented and how the representation of knowledge guides the application of knowledge Incoming information from the environment is organized around previously developed schema Gist: Central idea Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

9. Schema Schemas are like: Dramas: Schemas provide the script where the variables (aka characters, setting, and action) are unique to each performance Dramas: Schemas provide the script where the variables (aka characters, setting, and action) are unique to each performance Theories: Interpret phenomenon and make predictions about unobserved events Theories: Interpret phenomenon and make predictions about unobserved events Procedures/Algorithms: Evaluate new information to determine the fit to the schema and then directs future behavior Procedures/Algorithms: Evaluate new information to determine the fit to the schema and then directs future behavior Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

10. Properties of Schemas Schemas are developed by prior knowledge and experience Actively build schemas and revise in light of new information Information from the environment is processed and transformed depending on prior schemas Schemas help people understand, interpret, and remember incoming information Facilitates memory because it is easier to remember schema than details Culture influences schemas Memory for knowledge or an event is determined by the cultural context in which it takes place Memory for knowledge or an event is determined by the cultural context in which it takes place Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

11. Bransford & Johnson (1972) Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

12. Bransford & Johnson (1972) If the balloons popped, the sound wouldn't be able to carry since everything would be too far away from the correct floor. A closed window would also prevent the sound from carrying, since most buildings tend to be well insulated. Since the whole operation depends on a steady flow of electricity, a break in the middle of the wire would also cause problems. Of course, the fellow could shout, but the human voice is not loud enough to carry that far. An additional problem is that a string could break on the instrument. Then there could be no accompaniment to the message. It is clear that the best situation would involve less distance. Then there would be fewer potential problems. With face to face contact, the least number of things could go wrong Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

13. About the James headache woman her asked. James asked the woman about her headache. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

14. Schemas and Information Processing Perception: Attaching meaning to a stimulus Bottom-Up : Notice separate defining features and assemble them into a recognizable pattern Bottom-Up : Notice separate defining features and assemble them into a recognizable pattern Top-down: Perceive based on the context and the patterns you expect to occur in the situation Top-down: Perceive based on the context and the patterns you expect to occur in the situation Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

15. Schemas and Information Processing Schema Theory proposes an interaction between bottom-up and top-down processing Incoming information activates a schema Incoming information activates a schemaBottom-up Facilitates activation and modification of old schema or generation of new schema Once appropriate schema is activated, schema fills in necessary but not explicit details with assumed values Once appropriate schema is activated, schema fills in necessary but not explicit details with assumed valuesTop-down Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

16. Schema and Information Processing Concept: General category whose members share certain properties. Prototype: Best representative of a concept. Prototypes result from experiences with many exemplars of the concept Prototypes result from experiences with many exemplars of the concept Incoming information is compared to the prototypical schema Incoming information is compared to the prototypical schema Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

17. Schemas and Information Processing If incoming information matches the script, schema is strengthened If incoming information does not match the script, search for more accurate schema Information that does not fit into any schema likely to: Not be comprehended or Not be comprehended or Comprehended incorrectly Comprehended incorrectly Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

18. Schemas and Information Processing Information Processing: Incoming information matches outgoing information Memory matches the environment Memory matches the environment Schema Theory: Active attempt to understand information based on prior knowledge and experiences Memories are shaped by prior knowledge and experiences Memories are shaped by prior knowledge and experiences Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

19. Functions of Schema Organize knowledge Assist recall Guide behavior Enable predictions Make sense of current experiences Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

20. Learning New Knowledge Three reactions to new information: Accretion: Incorporate new information to existing schemata without making changes to the schemata Accretion: Incorporate new information to existing schemata without making changes to the schemata Tuning: Modify schemata to be more consistent with experience Tuning: Modify schemata to be more consistent with experience Restructuring: Create a new schemata because of inconsistency between old schemata and new information Restructuring: Create a new schemata because of inconsistency between old schemata and new information Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

21. Benefits of Schema Benefits of connecting new information to prior knowledge: Better retention of information Better retention of information Better ability to access information in authentic situations Better ability to access information in authentic situations Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

22. You have been employed by a manufacturer of educational materials to ensure that the cards in one of their educational games have been correctly produced. The rule governing the production of the card states that if the card has the letter S on one side, then it has the number 3 on the other. Each card has a letter on one side and a number on the other. Indicate which cards you definitely need to turn over, and only those cards, to determine whether the rule is broken in the case of any of these four cards. SQ37 Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

23. You are the Housemaster at a boarding school. It is your responsibility to ensure that the students keep their rooms tidy, so you introduce a rule which states that if a student eats biscuits then their room must be tidy. Each card represents one student. One side states whether or not the student’s room is tidy. The other side details whether they have been eating cookies. Indicate the cards you definitely need to turn over, and only those cards, to determine whether the rule is broken from any of the four students. Ate cookies No cookies Messy room Tidy room Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

24. Expert and Novice Schema Watson Selection Task (Watson, 1966) Cheater Detection Task: Second contextualized item Cheater Detection Task: Second contextualized item Learning is easier in context Expertise in a domain influences performance Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

25. Expert and Novice Schema Experts: Complete and comprehensive schemata Recognize a pattern related to a developed schema Recognize a pattern related to a developed schema Enable to reason using specific, domain- based strategies Enable to reason using specific, domain- based strategies Use automatized skills Use automatized skills Novice: Incomplete schemata Use general problem solving strategies Greater load on working memory Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

26. Goal of Education Students construct and apply appropriate schemata to solve practical problems in various domains Become “expert” problem solvers in school courses Become “expert” problem solvers in school courses Instructional Strategies Reduce extra cognitive load – Irrelevant tasks Reduce extra cognitive load – Irrelevant tasks Increase relevant cognitive load Increase relevant cognitive load Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

27. Identifying Students’ Schemas Observe Ask for explanation Ask to make predictions Ask to teach another student Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

28. Teaching Strategies Connect new information to prior knowledge Advanced Organizer: Bridge between new information and prior knowledge Advanced Organizer: Bridge between new information and prior knowledge Schema Signals: Indicate the schema that students should use to approach the new information Schema Signals: Indicate the schema that students should use to approach the new information Make instructional materials meaningful Concept Maps: Diagram showing the relationship between concepts Concept Maps: Diagram showing the relationship between concepts Identify and correct schemas that are contradictory, wrong, or unnecessary Identify and correct schemas that are contradictory, wrong, or unnecessary Directly teach transfer Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

29. Developing an Advanced Organizer List major principles of new lesson List knowledge or skills necessary for understanding new material Assess students’ understanding of prerequisite material Re-teach knowledge and skills if necessary Write the advanced organizer that illuminates the similarities between old and new concepts Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

30. Present Advanced Organizer Present content Use examples beginning from simple to complex Use examples beginning from simple to complex Relate content back to the Advanced Organizer Using Advanced Organizers Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

31. Advanced Organizers Checklist for good Advanced Organizers: Does the organizer allow students to discover the logical relationships in the lesson? Does the organizer allow students to discover the logical relationships in the lesson? Does the organizer relate unfamiliar material to existing knowledge? Does the organizer relate unfamiliar material to existing knowledge? Is the organizer easy for the learner to use? Is the organizer easy for the learner to use? Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

32. Advanced Organizers Cognitive theories focus on cognitive processes. Before Spring Break, we discussed reasoning. Today we are going to discuss teaching methods. When discussing the Deviation IQ in the chapter on intelligence, I introduced you to a standard deviation. Standard deviations represent the variance of a variable. When one has calculated the variance of multiple variables, then factor analysis can be used to determine the communality of each variable. Bruner’s teaching method consisted of having students generalize a rule from examples. Ausubel, on the other hand, viewed effective learning as typically taking place when teachers present the general rule first, and then examples later. Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

33. Positive Reinforcement Negative Punishment Schemata Behaviorism Classical Conditioning: Involuntary behavior Operant Conditioning: Voluntary behavior Unconditioned Stimulus Conditioned Stimulus Unconditioned Response Conditioned Response Punishment: Behavior stops Reinforcement: Behavior is repeated Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos Negative Reinforcement Positive Punishment Remove Present

34. Developing Concept Maps Place the main idea in a circle in the center List all concepts to include in the concept map Group the concepts by higher-order topics Place the higher-order topics in circles linked to the main idea Link the concepts around the higher-order topic Verify the connections on the concept map and change if necessary Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

35. Concept Maps Benefits of Concept Maps Hierarchical structure helps organize major concepts Hierarchical structure helps organize major concepts Cross-links between concepts helps to see how different concepts are related Cross-links between concepts helps to see how different concepts are related Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

36. Classroom Implications Prior knowledge influences what and how a student learns What is remembered is largely a function of what was understood to begin with Students learn best when they link new information with related existing ideas Information is forgotten unless integrated into existing schemata Information is forgotten unless integrated into existing schemata The schemas of students are different from each other and from the teacher Both understanding and memory are driven by meaning Learning should occur in the context in which it will be used Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

37. Schema Theory Overview Results: Organized representation of knowledge in memory Means: Comparison of new information to previously developed schemas Accretion Tuning Restructuring Inputs: Information that fits into previously developed schemas Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

38. Schema Theory Overview Learning Outcomes: Schema, Organized body of knowledge used to interpret new information Role of the Learner: Apply previously existing schema to new problems and modify schemas as appropriate Role of the Instructor: Identify students’ previously developed schema Integrate new information with previously developed schemas Correct inaccurate schemas Inputs for Learning: Link between new information and previous schemas Process of Learning: Accretion, tuning, and restructuring of schema Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos

39. Revision What are schemas and how do they influence perception? How does top-down and bottom-up perception influence the application and development of schemas? What are the three ways that schemas are developed? How does schema theory influence education? Dr. K. A. Korb University of Jos