1. Social Psychology Dr. Leslie Case, BCBA Nova Southeastern University
Ch. 2: The Self in a Social World

2. Self in relation to others
Spotlight effect: The belief that others are paying more attention to one’s appearance and behavior than they really are
Experiment: University students were asked to wear a Barry Manilow t-shirt in a room with other people, and estimated how many people noticed. Students estimated 50%---actually it was only 25%

3. Self in relation to others
Illusion of transparency: The illusion that our concealed emotions leak out and can be easily read by others
If we are angry, happy, sad, we presume that others realize we are feeling these things

4. Interplay between sense of self and our social worlds
Social surroundings affect our self awareness
We tend to focus on how we differ from others in a group and how others react to that difference
Self-interest colors social judgment
We tend to blame ourselves when things go well, and blame others when they go wrong
Self-concern motivates social behavior
Our actions are often strategic moves to make a good impression
Social relationships help define our self
We have different selves with different individuals

5. Self-Concept: Who Am I? Self-schemas
Schemas are mental templates by which we organize our world
Self-schemas are how we perceive ourselves Example: Overweight, smart, athletic
Schemas affect how we process social information, how we perceive, remember, and evaluate other people and ourselves
2. Self-reference effect
When information is relevant to our self-concept, we process it quickly and remember it well
Example: After a conversation with someone, we best remember the things they said about us

6. How the self develops There are a number of influences:
The roles we play- student, parent, salesperson
The social identities we form- includes our race, gender, cliques we join, and who we are not
The comparisons we make with others- Example: we define if we are rich by how wealthy others around us are
Our successes and failures
How other people judge us
The surrounding culture- Example: Western culture tends to be more individualistic, while Asian, African, and Hispanic cultures tend to be more collectivist

7. What Affects Self-Concept?

8. Self-Concept

9. Self-Concept: Who Am I? Self-knowledge
We tend to be wrong when there are subtle influences on our own behavior, when we are:
Explaining our behavior
Predicting our behavior
Predicting our feelings
We are fairly unaware of much that goes on in our minds. We are more aware of results than of the process of thinking

10. Self-Analysis
Sometimes when we analyze our feelings, we become less in tune with reality than if we simply reported our emotions and made predictions based on that
Example: An experiment asked participants about their feelings towards their relationship. They found that happiness with the relationship predicted whether couples would still be together a few months later. However, if participants were first asked to analyze their feelings, their attitudes were not predictive of future relationship longevity.

11. Self-Concept: Who Am I?
The mental processes that control our social behavior are distinct from the mental processes we use to explain our behavior.
Dual attitude system: Our automatic implicit attitudes regarding something or someone often differ from our consciously controlled, explicit attitudes
Explicit attitudes may change easily, but implicit attitudes change more slowly

12. Implications of Faulty Self-Knowledge
Self-reports are untrustworthy
The usefulness of self-understanding in the scientific process is limited
The sincerity with which people report and interpret their experiences is no guarantee of the validity of these reports
Personal testimony, eye witness reports, courtroom testimony all are suspect

13. Perceived Self-Control
Self-efficacy
Locus of control
Learned helplessness versus self-determination

14. Perceived Self Control
Self-control or “willpower” has limits
Effortful self control depletes our limited willpower reserves
Example: Those who force themselves to eat radishes rather than chocolate give up more quickly on other difficult tasks
Self control operates similar to muscular strength—both are weaker after exertion, replenished with rest, and strengthened by exercise

15. Self-Efficacy
Self-efficacy: A sense that one is competent and effective, distinguished from self-esteem, one’s sense of self-worth
Leads us to set challenging goals and to persist in the face of difficulties
Grows with hard won achievements
Children and adults with strong feelings of self-efficacy are more persistent, less anxious, and less depressed, live healthier lives, and are more academically successful

16. Locus of control
Locus of control: the extent to which people perceive outcomes as internally controllable by their own efforts and actions or as externally controlled by chance or force
Those with an internal locus of control believe they control their own destiny
Those with an external locus of control believe that chance or outside forces determine their fate

17. Locus of Control Internal External
In the long run, people get the respect they deserve in this world
What happens to me is my own doing
The average person can have an influence in government decisions
Unfortunately, people’s worth passes unrecognized no matter how hard they try
Sometimes I feel that I don’t have enough control over the direction my life is taking
This world is run by the few people in power, and there is not much the little guy can do about it

18. Locus of Control
Those who have internal locus of control are more likely to do well in school, successfully stop smoking, wear seat belts, deal with marital problems directly, make lots of money, delay instant gratification to achieve long term goals, and exhibit better mental health
Those with internal locus of control see setbacks as a fluke, or something that can be overcome with hard work.
As a result, they keep working towards their goals and are more likely to achieve them

19. Learned Helplessness verse Self-Determination
Learned Helplessness: When animals and people experience uncontrollable bad events, they learn to feel helpless and resigned
Example: Dogs that cannot escape shocks while confined will learn a sense of helplessness. Later, they cower passively in other situations when they could escape
Example: Fish experiment

20. Learned Helplessness

21. Learned Helplessness
How might the concept of learned helplessness explain the behavior of domestic violence victims? Lower rates of achievement in minority groups? Less women striving for promotions?

22. Freedom and self-determination
People who are able to make their own choices tend to have better mental health, be more productive, be healthier, and have more pro-social behavior
Those unable to make choices (institutionalized, hospitalized, in jail) tend to have worse outcomes than those who have some level of control over their choices

23. Freedom and self-determination
However, there can be too much of a good thing. When choosing from too many choices, there can be information overload, and people tend to be less happy with their final choice.
Example: After choosing between 30 kinds of jams or chocolates, people were less satisfied with their choice than those who only chose from 6.

24. Freedom and self-determination
People express greater satisfaction with irrevocable choices than with reversible choices
“All purchases final” sale
Marriage before divorce became commonplace

25. Self-Esteem
Self-esteem: A person’s overall self-evaluation or sense of self-worth
High self-esteem fosters initiative, resilience, and pleasant feelings
Low self-esteem predicts increased risk of depression, drug abuse, and some forms of delinquency. More vulnerable to anxiety, loneliness, and eating disorders.

26. Self-Esteem
Many programs have been put into place in elementary schools, counselors offices, and on children’s television to increase self-esteem
They attempt to artificially pump self-esteem, such as by having children chant things like “I’m great because I’m me”
For the most part, these programs are ineffective…many psychologists go so far as to call them hogwash…and don’t lead to happier, healthier children

27. The Dark Side of Self-Esteem
Individuals who conduct anti-social acts (drug dealers, gang leaders, terrorist, leaders of hate-based organizations, dictators) often have very high self-esteem
Those with high self-esteem often react by putting others down or becoming violent when that self-esteem is threatened
People with high self esteem are sometimes obnoxious, tend to interrupt, to talk at people rather than with them

28. Self-Esteem
Some researchers believe the key to positive benefits from self esteem lie in having a “secure self-esteem”, rooted in feeling good about who one is, one’s talents and values, rather than based on grades, looks, friends, money, etc.
Other researches believe the key is in “genuine self-esteem”, those who feel secure self-worth without seeking to be the center of attention or being angered by criticism

29. Self-Serving Bias
Self-serving bias: the tendency to perceive oneself favorably
People generally attribute success to their ability and effort, but attribute failure to external factors such as bad luck or the problem being “impossible” to solve
Situations that involve both skill and chance (job interviews) are especially susceptible to the self-serving bias

30. Self-Serving Bias in Action
Students who do well on a test tend to credit their hard work and studying, while those who do poorly are more likely to criticize the exam
This comes across even in the language we use: “I earned an A” verses “The professor gave me a C.”

31. Self-Serving Bias in Action
Couples in marriages overestimate the amount of work they do towards household chores, leading both people to feel they are doing more than their fair share
Managers often blame poor performance on worker’s lack of ability or effort, while workers generally blame something external- inadequate supplies, excessive workload, ambiguous assignments, etc.
Adults see themselves as supporting their aging parents more so than their siblings

32. Self-Serving Bias in Social Comparisons
For most subjective and socially desirable dimensions, most people see themselves as better than the average person
Most see themselves as more ethical, friendlier, intelligent, less prejudiced, more competent at their job, more disciplined, and more insightful than others
Communities see themselves as more caring, a better community than others
66% see themselves as young for their age

33. Self-Serving Bias in Social Comparisons
In a survey of high school students, 60% rated themselves as being in the top 10% in “ability to get along with others”, and 25% saw themselves in the top 1%

34. Self-Serving Bias
By using subjective qualities in defining success, we have leeway to construct our own definition
Example: If you are assessing your athletic abilities, you might call to mind how good you are at basketball, even though you stink at tennis, football, hockey, and baseball.

35. Self-Serving Bias
People support their self-images by assigning importance to things they are good at
Example: If you are good at computers, you place a high value on being a computer-literate person. If you are bad at computers, you dismiss it as a field for geeks.

36. Self-Serving Bias Often results in unrealistic optimism
Students perceive themselves as more likely than their classmates to get a good job, a good salary, and own a home, and less likely to develop drinking problems, have a heart attack, or be fired
Sexually active young women who inconsistently use contraceptives perceive themselves as less likely than others to become pregnant

37. Self-Serving Bias Unrealistic optimism increases our vulnerability.
We don’t believe bad things will happen to us, so we don’t take precautions or prepare ourselves.
Example: Overconfident students tend not to prepare enough for exams, and as a result, perform poorly
Some level of self-doubt is beneficial, as it prompts us to prepare adequately

38. Self-Serving Bias
False Consensus Effect: The tendency to overestimate the commonality of one’s opinions and one’s undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors
When we behave badly or fail in a task, we reassure ourselves by thinking such lapses are common
Example: Thinking that EVERYONE speeds, lies, cheats on taxes, doesn’t get along with their mother-in-law
Leads people to overestimate the actual percentage of people who do those behaviors

39. Self-Serving Bias
False Uniqueness Effect: The tendency to underestimate the commonality of one’s abilities and one’s desirable or successful behaviors
We serve our self-image by seeing our talents and moral behavior as relatively unusual
Leads us to underestimate how many other people exhibit these talents or moral behaviors

40. Why are we so self-serving?
Perhaps it is easier to remember the positive things we’ve done, and we tend to forget the times we have been absentminded or not done our fair share
Perhaps we are motivated to increase our self-esteem

41. Self-Serving Bias Reflections on self-efficacy and self-serving bias
The self-serving bias as adaptive
The self-serving bias as maladaptive
© Larry Dale Gordon/ Image Bank

42. Self-Presentation False modesty Self-handicapping
Impression management
© David H. Wells/ The Image Works

43. False Modesty
People sometimes present themselves more self-disparagingly than they feel; or present their opponents as highly worthy
Tends to elicit “strokes” from others
Makes wins look bigger, and losses more understandable
Tends only to occur when statements are made publicly, doesn’t occur when statements are anonymous or private

44. Self-Handicapping
Self-handicapping: protecting one’s self image with behaviors that create a handy excuse for later failure
Example: I didn’t get rejected for the job because I’m unqualified, it was because I stayed up too late partying the night before the interview
It is more self-deflating to try hard and fail than to procrastinate and have a handy excuse

45. Impression Management
Self presentation: the act of expressing oneself and behaving in ways designed to create a favorable impression or an impression that corresponds to one’s ideals
Trying to look good for our internal audience (ourselves) as well as our external audience (others)
Often occurs without us being aware of it or making any conscious effort

46. More on Self-PresentationCultural Influences

47. Impression Management
Self monitoring: Being attuned to the way one presents oneself in social situations and adjusting one’s performance to create the desired impression
Conscious self-presentation, becomes a way of life for some
Those high in self monitoring may be described as social chameleons; also adapt to new jobs, roles, and relationships
Those low in self monitoring tend to care little about what others think, and present their opinions irregardless of the attitudes of their anticipated audience