1. Ling 122: English as a World Language Language Planning & Language Policy Reading: Wiley (Course Reader)

2. ‘English for the Children’ (Prop 227) Debate Debate Be it resolved that immigrant parents in the US should encourage their children to learn the language of the land as fast as possible, and parents should speak English with them at home. Be it resolved that immigrant parents in the US should encourage their children to learn the language of the land as fast as possible, and parents should speak English with them at home.

3. Definitions Language planning: deliberate efforts to influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of their language codes Language planning: deliberate efforts to influence the behavior of others with respect to the acquisition, structure, or functional allocation of their language codes Language policy: official policies resulting from language planning and imposed in a deliberate attempt to influence language behavior by means of official codes Language policy: official policies resulting from language planning and imposed in a deliberate attempt to influence language behavior by means of official codes

4. Types of Language Planning Corpus planning: activities such as coining new terms, reforming spelling and adopting a new script; Corpus planning: activities such as coining new terms, reforming spelling and adopting a new script; the creation of new forms,the creation of new forms, the modification of old ones, orthe modification of old ones, or the selection from alternative forms in a spoken or written codethe selection from alternative forms in a spoken or written code

5. Types of Language Planning Status Planning: the recognition by a national government of the importance or position of one language in relation to others. Status Planning: the recognition by a national government of the importance or position of one language in relation to others. The allocation of languages or language varieties to given functionsThe allocation of languages or language varieties to given functions Medium of instruction Medium of instruction Official language Official language Vehicle of mass communication Vehicle of mass communication Language of international communication Language of international communication Etc. Etc.

6. Types of Language Planning Acquisition Planning: planning directed toward increasing the number of users – speakers, writers, listeners, readers – of a language Acquisition Planning: planning directed toward increasing the number of users – speakers, writers, listeners, readers – of a language Literacy educationLiteracy education Second & foreign language education effortsSecond & foreign language education efforts

7. Language Planning as Problem Solving Overt & covert goals Overt & covert goals Linguistic goals Linguistic goals Promotion of mass literacyPromotion of mass literacy Elimination of sexist languageElimination of sexist language Need for technical termsNeed for technical terms Non-linguistic goals Non-linguistic goals Consumer protectionConsumer protection Scientific exchangeScientific exchange National integrationNational integration Political controlPolitical control Economic developmentEconomic development Creation of new elites or preservation of old onesCreation of new elites or preservation of old ones Pacification or cooption of minority groupsPacification or cooption of minority groups Mass mobilization of national or political movementsMass mobilization of national or political movements

8. Language Policy & Planning in the U.S. The founders of the U.S. chose not to designate English as the official language The founders of the U.S. chose not to designate English as the official language Dominance of English was self-evidentDominance of English was self-evident Respect for linguistic diversity & minority rightsRespect for linguistic diversity & minority rights Support for minorities who supported the revolutionSupport for minorities who supported the revolution English has functioned as if it were the official language English has functioned as if it were the official language

9. History of the Status of English in the U.S. British Colonial Period to 1789 British Colonial Period to 1789 English dominant among European languagesEnglish dominant among European languages Other immigrant languages tolerated differentiallyOther immigrant languages tolerated differentially English-only practices & English illiteracy statues imposed on slavesEnglish-only practices & English illiteracy statues imposed on slaves Native Americans viewed as separate & subordinate nationsNative Americans viewed as separate & subordinate nations Missionaries attempted to promote English Missionaries attempted to promote English 1775 – Continental Congress allocated funds for Indian education - pacification 1775 – Continental Congress allocated funds for Indian education - pacification

10. History of the Status of English in the U.S. 1789 – 1880 1789 – 1880 Territorial expansion & annexation of language-minority peoplesTerritorial expansion & annexation of language-minority peoples Great tolerance for use of European immigrant languagesGreat tolerance for use of European immigrant languages Compulsory illiteracy laws for African Americans until 1865Compulsory illiteracy laws for African Americans until 1865 Pacification of Native Americans through educationPacification of Native Americans through education Some Native Americans (Cherokee) ran own schools & achieved high levels of NL literacy & biliteracy Some Native Americans (Cherokee) ran own schools & achieved high levels of NL literacy & biliteracy

11. History of the Status of English in the U.S. 1880 – 1930s 1880 – 1930s Height of US imperialism (Hawai’i, Philippines, Puerto Rico)Height of US imperialism (Hawai’i, Philippines, Puerto Rico) Attempts at language restrictionAttempts at language restriction Height of immigration through 1920sHeight of immigration through 1920s WWI: restrictions on use of German & other European languages in schoolsWWI: restrictions on use of German & other European languages in schools Meyer v. Nebraska: SC ruled against an English-only restriction on the use of foreign languages in Nebraska schools, but affirmed the state’s right to mandate that English be the common & official language of instructionMeyer v. Nebraska: SC ruled against an English-only restriction on the use of foreign languages in Nebraska schools, but affirmed the state’s right to mandate that English be the common & official language of instruction

12. History of the Status of English in the U.S. World War II – present World War II – present Civil rights movement influenced language policy – provisions made for other languages in voting, educationCivil rights movement influenced language policy – provisions made for other languages in voting, education 1974 – Lau v. Nichols – Supreme Court acknowledged that school had to provide proactive means of education1974 – Lau v. Nichols – Supreme Court acknowledged that school had to provide proactive means of education Lau remedies Lau remedies ESEA Title VII Bilingual Education Act ESEA Title VII Bilingual Education Act

13. Bilingual Education Types Transitional Transitional Purpose: to transition to an all-English curriculumPurpose: to transition to an all-English curriculum Maintenance Maintenance Purpose: to maintain & develop the first languagePurpose: to maintain & develop the first language Enrichment Enrichment Purpose: to develop an appreciation for & fluency in the heritage languagePurpose: to develop an appreciation for & fluency in the heritage language Two-way immersion Two-way immersion Purpose: to develop 2 nd language proficiency among mainstream students & to maintain & develop first language proficiency among minority studentsPurpose: to develop 2 nd language proficiency among mainstream students & to maintain & develop first language proficiency among minority students

14. ESEA Title VII – The Bilingual Education Act Grants to school districts for implementation of transitional bilingual programs (basic grants) Grants to school districts for implementation of transitional bilingual programs (basic grants) Grants to IHEs for training teachers Grants to IHEs for training teachers Grants to materials development centers to produce bilingual teaching materials Grants to materials development centers to produce bilingual teaching materials Grants to Bilingual Education Service Centers to provide technical assistance Grants to Bilingual Education Service Centers to provide technical assistance

15. Problems with ESEA Title VII Conflicting goals Conflicting goals Transitional v. maintenanceTransitional v. maintenance Inconsistent implementation Inconsistent implementation In use of each languageIn use of each language In qualification of teachersIn qualification of teachers Conflicting research results Conflicting research results Political issues Political issues Distribution of resourcesDistribution of resources Notions of the role of government (local, state, federal) in educationNotions of the role of government (local, state, federal) in education

16. The English-Only Movement & U.S. English Since 1980s – reaction against linguistic accommodations Since 1980s – reaction against linguistic accommodations 1981: S.I. Hayakawa introduced constitutional amendment to make English the official language of the U.S.1981: S.I. Hayakawa introduced constitutional amendment to make English the official language of the U.S. ‘U.S. English’ formed to raise funds to promote English-Only amendments at both state and national levels‘U.S. English’ formed to raise funds to promote English-Only amendments at both state and national levels

17. The English-Plus Movement Founded in 1987 Founded in 1987 To counteract the English-Only movement To counteract the English-Only movement Purpose: to preserve and promote linguistic & cultural diversity Purpose: to preserve and promote linguistic & cultural diversity Other critics of English-Only Other critics of English-Only TESOLTESOL LSALSA AAALAAAL NEANEA Teachers UnionsTeachers Unions

18. Criticisms of English-Only English-Only Movement & U.S. English English-Only Movement & U.S. English Ignore the civil rights traditions in the USIgnore the civil rights traditions in the US Fail to promote the integration of language- minority childrenFail to promote the integration of language- minority children Neglect the need for American business to communicate with foreign marketsNeglect the need for American business to communicate with foreign markets Restrict government’s ability to reach all citizensRestrict government’s ability to reach all citizens Attempt to disenfranchise minority citizensAttempt to disenfranchise minority citizens Promote divisiveness and hostility toward those whose 1 st language is not EnglishPromote divisiveness and hostility toward those whose 1 st language is not English

19. California Propositions 1986: Proposition 63 declared English as sole official language of California 1986: Proposition 63 declared English as sole official language of California Propsition 187 attempted to limit benefits for undocumented immigrants Propsition 187 attempted to limit benefits for undocumented immigrants Proposition 209 sought to end affirmative action programs for underrepresented minorities Proposition 209 sought to end affirmative action programs for underrepresented minorities 1998: ‘English for the Children’ (Prop 227) 1998: ‘English for the Children’ (Prop 227)

20. ‘English for the Children’ (Prop 227) Rationale Rationale English is the language of opportunity – dominates science, business, technologyEnglish is the language of opportunity – dominates science, business, technology Immigrant parents want their children to learn EnglishImmigrant parents want their children to learn English Schools have a moral obligation to teach EnglishSchools have a moral obligation to teach English For the previous two decades, CA school have performed poorly in educating immigrant children, - high drop-out ratesFor the previous two decades, CA school have performed poorly in educating immigrant children, - high drop-out rates Young children acquire 2 nd languages easilyYoung children acquire 2 nd languages easily

21. ‘English for the Children’ (Prop 227) Since 227, several issues have posed major challenges for schools & parents: Since 227, several issues have posed major challenges for schools & parents: It imposes English-Only instruction which is normally 180 days of specially designed instruction in EnglishIt imposes English-Only instruction which is normally 180 days of specially designed instruction in English It doesn’t allow bilingual education, unless language-minority parents request a waiver from English-only instruction and request bilingual educationIt doesn’t allow bilingual education, unless language-minority parents request a waiver from English-only instruction and request bilingual education But still no guarantee they will receive it But still no guarantee they will receive it

22. Some Current Language Policy Issues in the U.S. To what extent can / should room be made for the existence of other languages? To what extent can / should room be made for the existence of other languages? How are language minorities advantaged or disadvantaged by policies involving language rights, accommodations, or restrictions? How are language minorities advantaged or disadvantaged by policies involving language rights, accommodations, or restrictions? What are the advantages / disadvantages of intergenerational language shift to English? What are the advantages / disadvantages of intergenerational language shift to English? How is the monolingual language majority affected by these language policies? How is the monolingual language majority affected by these language policies? What kinds of language policies would assist the English-speaking majority? What kinds of language policies would assist the English-speaking majority?