1. The chapter will address the following questions:
Introduction
The chapter will address the following questions:
What are the two basic types of computer outputs.
What is the difference between medium and format for outputs.
What is the difference between tabular, zoned, graphic, and narrative formats for presenting information.
What is the difference between bar, column, pie, line, and scatter charts and their uses.
What are several general principles that are important to output design.
How do you design and prototype computer outputs.
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No additional notes provided.

2. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Types of Outputs
There are two basic types of computer outputs, external and internal.
External outputs leave the system to trigger actions on the part of their recipients or confirm actions to their recipients.
Most external outputs are created as preprinted forms that are designed and duplicated by forms manufacturers for use on computer printers.
Some external outputs are designed as turnaround documents.
Turnaround outputs are those which are typically implemented as a form eventually reenters the system as an input.
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Outputs present information to system users. Outputs, the most visible component of a working information system, are the justification for the system. During systems analysis, you defined output needs and requirements, but you didn't design those outputs. In this section, you will learn how to design effective outputs for system users

3. 464-465 Figure 13.1 Typical External Output
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4. 464,466 Figure 13.2 Typical External Turnaround Output
Notice that the invoice has a top and lower portion. The top portion is to be detached and returned with the customer payment.

5. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Types of Outputs
There are two basic types of computer outputs, external and internal. (continued)
Internal outputs stay inside the system to support the system's users and managers.
Internal outputs fulfill management reporting and decision support requirements.
Management information systems typically produce three types of reports: detailed, summary, and exception.
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6. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Types of Outputs
Internal Outputs (continued)
Detailed Reports:
Present information with little or no filtering or restrictions.
Some detailed reports are historical in nature.
Detailed reports confirm and document the successful processing of transactions and serve as an audit trail for subsequent management inquiry.
These reports assist management planning and controlling by generating schedules and analysis.
Other detailed reports are regulatory, that is, required by government.
464
No additional notes provided.

7. 464-467 Figure 13.3a Sample Detailed Report
An example detailed report is depicted in the figure above. This example is a listing of all purchase orders that were generated on a particular date. Other example detail reports would be a detailed listing of all customer accounts, orders, or products in inventory.

8. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Types of Outputs
Internal Outputs (continued)
Summary Reports:
Categorize information for managers who do not want to wade through details.
The data for summary reports is typically categorized and summarized to indicate trends and potential problems.
The use of graphics (charts and graphs) on summary reports is also rapidly gaining acceptance because it more clearly summarizes trends at a glance.
No additional notes provided.

9. 464-467 Figure 13.3b Sample Summary Report
A sample summary report is depicted in the figure above. This report summarizes the month and year’s total sales by product type and category.

10. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Types of Outputs
Internal Outputs (continued)
Exception Reports:
Filter data before it is presented to the manager as information.
Exception reports only report exceptions to some condition or standard.
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No additional notes provided.

11. 466-467 Figure 13.3c Sample Exception Report
An example is depicted in the figure above where delinquent member accounts are identified for following-up. Another classic examples of an exception report is a report that identifies items that are low in stock (soon to run out).

12. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Output Media and Formats
A good systems analyst will consider all available options for implementing an output, especially output medium and output format.
A medium is what the output information is recorded on, such as paper or video display device.
Format is the way the information is displayed on a medium for instance, columns of numbers.
The selection of an appropriate medium and format for an output depends on how the output will be used and when it is needed.
We assume you are familiar with different output devices, such as printers, plotters, computer output on microfilm (COM), and CRT display terminals. These are standard topics in most introductory information systems courses. In this chapter, we are more concerned with the actual output than with the device.

13. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Output Media and Formats
Alternative Media for Presenting Information:
A common medium for computer outputs is paper; such outputs are called printed output.
Currently, paper is the cheapest medium we will survey.
Paper is bulky and requires considerable storage space.
To overcome the storage problem presented by paper, many businesses use film.
Microfilm is a roll of photographic film that is used to record information in a reduced size.
Microfiche is a single sheet of film that is capable of storing many pages of reduced output.
Video is the fastest-growing medium for computer outputs, the on-line display of information on a visual display device, such as a CRT terminal or microcomputer display.
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Although the paperless office (and business) has been predicted for several years, it has not yet become a reality. Perhaps there is an irreversible psychological dependence on paper as a medium. In any case, paper output will be with us for a long time.
The use of film does present its own problems - microfiche and microfilm can only be produced and read by special equipment. Therefore, other than paper, the most common output medium is video.
Although the video medium provides the system user with convenient access to information, the information is only temporary. When the image leaves the screen, that information is lost unless it is redisplayed. If a permanent copy of the information is required, paper and film are superior media. Often times when system designers build systems that include video outputs, they also may provide the user with the ability to obtain that output on paper.

14. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Output Media and Formats
Alternative Formats for Presenting Information:
There are several different formats you can choose for communicating information on a medium.
Tabular output using columns of text and numbers is the oldest and most common format for computer outputs.
Zoned output places text and numbers into designated areas of a form or screen.
Graphic output is the use of a graph or chart to convey information.
To the system user, a picture can be more valuable than words.
Graphs can help system users grasp trends and data relationships that cannot be easily seen in columns of numbers.
The most commonly used graphs are the bar, column, pie, line, and scatter diagrams.
Most of the computer programs written probably generated tabular reports.
Zoned output is often used in conjunction with tabular output. For example, an order output contains zones for customer and order data in addition to tables (or rows of columns) for ordered items.

15. 469 Figure 13.4 Chart Types Available in Microsoft’s Excel Spreadsheet
No additional notes provided.

16. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Output Media and Formats
Alternative Formats for Presenting Information:
The five most common graph types can be distinguished as follows:
Type 1 - Bar charts:
Are used to show individual figures or values at a specific time or to depict comparisons among items.
The categories to be compared are organized vertically, while the values are organized horizontally.
A stacked bar chart style may be used to show the relationship of individual items to the “whole”.
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No additional notes provided.

17.
Figure 13.5a Sample Bar Chart
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18. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Output Media and Formats
Alternative Formats for Presenting Information:
The five most common graph types can be distinguished as follows:
Type 2 - Column charts:
A column chart is a simple variation of the bar chart.
A column chart is used when there is a desire to show the variation over a period of time or to depict comparisons among items.
In a column chart, categories are organized horizontally and values are organized vertically.
This appearance places emphasis on variations over a period of time.
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No additional notes provided.

19.
Figure 13.5b Sample Column Chart
No additional notes provided.

20. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Output Media and Formats
Alternative Formats for Presenting Information:
The five most common graph types can be distinguished as follows:
Type 3 - Pie charts:
Pie charts are used to show the relationship or proportions of parts to the whole at specific period of time.
Some styles of pie charts represent explosions and are used to emphasis a particular item.
As a general rule of thumb, a pie chart should be used to show comparisons that involve 7 or fewer portions.
No additional notes provided.

21.
Figure 13.5c Sample Pie Chart
No additional notes provided.

22. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Output Media and Formats
Alternative Formats for Presenting Information:
The five most common graph types can be distinguished as follows:
Type 4 - Line charts:
Line charts are used to show trends over a period of time, at even intervals.
It is most common to organize the item being charted on the horizontal axis, and the measurement along the vertical axis.
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No additional notes provided.

23. 470
Figure 13.5d Sample Line Chart
No additional notes provided.

24. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Output Media and Formats
Alternative Formats for Presenting Information:
The five most common graph types can be distinguished as follows:
Type 5 - Scatter charts:
Scatter charts or diagrams are used to plot the data values of two items to show uneven intervals or clusters of data.
Various standard statistical techniques can then be applied to determine the degree of correlation that exists.
No additional notes provided.

25. 470-471 Figure 13.5e Sample Scatter Chart
No additional notes provided.

26. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Output Media and Formats
Alternative Formats for Presenting Information:
Another increasingly popular output format is the narrative format.
Narrative output format uses sentences and paragraphs replace or supplement standard text, numbers, and pictures.
Word-processing technology has exploited the narrative format for reports, business letters, and personalized form letters.
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For example, an accounts receivable system might interface with a word processor to provide names, addresses, and past due data for personalized credit-reminder letters.

27. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
System User Issues for Output Design
The following general principles are important for output design:
Computer outputs should be simple to read and interpret. These guidelines may enhance readability:
Every report or output screen should have a title.
Reports and screens should include section headings to segment large amounts of information.
Information in columns should have column headings.
Because section headings and column headings are sometimes abbreviated to conserve space, reports should include legends to interpret those headings.
Legends should also be used to formally define all fields on a report. You never know whose hands a report might end up in!
Computer jargon and error messages should be omitted from all outputs.
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No additional notes provided.

28. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
System User Issues for Output Design
The following general principles are important for output design: (continued)
The timing of computer outputs is important.
Outputs must be received by their recipients while the information is pertinent to transactions or decisions. This can affect how the output is designed and implemented.
The distribution of computer outputs must be sufficient to assist all relevant system users.
The computer outputs must be acceptable to the system users who will receive them.
An output design may contain the required information and still not be acceptable to the system user. To avoid this problem, the systems analyst must understand how the recipient plans to use the output.
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No additional notes provided.

29. How to Prototype & Design Computer Outputs
Step 1: Identify System Outputs
The design unit DFDs identify one output requirements that must be designed.
These outputs can easily be identified by examining the DFD for dataflows that are connecting to external entities.
The designer may have to interview users and to brainstorm outputs of the system.
Examine data model.
Output requirements should have been defined during systems analysis. A good starting point for output design is the design unit DFDs for the new system. The design unit DFDs identify one output requirements that must be designed. These outputs can easily be identified by examining the DFD for dataflows that are connecting to external entities. Content and other requirements for these outputs may have documented in the project dictionary. In the absence of such models, as is the case during discovery prototyping, the designer is expected to interview users and to brainstorm outputs of the system.
Brainstorming outputs can easily be done by examining the data model for the new system. By examining the various data entities, content, and their relationships with other entities, the designer tries to think of possible outputs (containing information describing those entities and their relationships) that may be useful to the system users. To ensure that the possible report is useful the designer must be knowledgeable of the overall business-side of the system being supported.

30. How to Prototype & Design Computer Outputs
Step 2: Select Output Medium and Format
The decision for the best output medium and format was based on:
The type and purpose of the output.
The technical and economic feasibility.
Several design issues need to be addressed.
What medium would best serve the output?
What would be the best format for the report?
How frequently is the output generated?
How many pages or sheets of output will be generated for a single copy of a report?
First, you must understand the type and purpose of the output. Is the output an internal or external report? If it's an internal report, is it a historical, detailed, summary, or exception report? If it's an external report, is the form a turnaround document?
What would be the best format for the report? Tabular? Zoned? Graphic? Narrative? Some combination of these? After establishing the format, you can determine what type of form or paper will be used. Computer paper comes in three standard sizes: 81/2''11,'' 11''14,'' and 8''14.'' Many printers can now easily compress 132 columns of print into an 8-inch width. You need to determine the capabilities and limitations of the intended printer. Despite the increase in larger 17” and 21 “ high-resolution monitors today, it is still recommended that display outputs (thus, the entire application screens) be designed for the lowest common denominator to ensure that all users be able to run the application and see the screens on their computers. Thus, it is still recommended that screen applications be able to run on systems having 640 X 480 screen resolution. If a preprinted form is to be used, requirements for that form must be specified. Should the form be designed for mailing? What will be the form's size? Will the form be perforated for bursting into several sections? What legends and instructions need to be printed on the form (both front and back)? What colors will be used and for which copies? Incidentally, form images can be stored and printed with modern laser printers, thereby eliminating the need for dealing with forms manufacturers in some businesses.
How frequently is the output generated? On demand? Hourly? Daily? Monthly? For scheduled outputs, when do system users need the report? Today, the generation of reports is more commonly done by the user themselves. However, in the event that reports are to printed by the information services department, they must be worked into the information systems operations schedule. For instance, a report the system user needs by 9:00 a.m. on Thursday may have to be scheduled for 5:30 a.m. Thursday. No other time may be available.

31. How to Prototype & Design Computer Outputs
Step 2: Select Output Medium and Format
Several design issues need to be addressed. (continued)
Does the output require multiple copies?
For printed outputs, have distribution controls been finalized?
For attributes contained on the output, what format should be followed?
Does the output require multiple copies? If so, how many? Photocopy (doesn't tie up printer)? Carbons (most printers can make no more than six legible carbons)? Duplicates (requires the most printer time, although laser printers are changing this situation)? For external documents, there are also several alternatives. Carbon and chemical carbon are the most common duplicating techniques. Selective carbons are a variation whereby certain fields on the master copy will not be printed on one or more of the remaining copies. The fields to be omitted must be communicated to the forms manufacturer. Two-up printing is a technique whereby two sets of forms possibly including carbons are printed side by side on the printer.

32. How to Prototype & Design Computer Outputs
Step 3: Prototype The Output for System Users
The format or layout of an output directly affects the system user's ability to read and interpret it.
The best way to lay out outputs is to sketch or, better still, generate a sample of the report or document via prototyping.
When prototyping outputs, it is important to involve the user to obtain feedback.
The user should be allowed to actually exercise or test the screens.
Part of that experience should involve demonstration of how the user may obtain appropriate help or instructions, drill-down to obtain additional information, navigate through pages, request different formats that are available, size the outputs, and perform test customization capabilities.
We need to show that sketch or prototype to the system user, get feedback, and make modifications to the sample. It's important to use realistic or reasonable data and demonstrate all control breaks.
Prior to the availability of prototyping tools, analysts could only sketch rough drafts of outputs to get a feel for how system users wanted outputs to look. With modern tools, we can develop more realistic prototypes of these outputs. Perhaps the least expensive and most overlooked prototyping tool is the common spreadsheet. Examples include Lotus 1-2-3, Microsoft's Excel, and Borland's Quattro. A spreadsheet's tabular format is ideally suited to the creation of rapid prototypes. Arithmetic and logical formulas and functions can be placed in cells (a cell is the intersection of a row and column); therefore, spreadsheets can automatically calculate and recalculate some cells to make the information accurate. Finally, most spreadsheets now include facilities to quickly convert tabular data into a variety of popular graphic formats. Consequently, spreadsheets provide an unprecedented way to prototype graphs for system users.
Many CASE products support or include facilities for report and screen design and prototyping via a project repository created during systems analysis. Some CASE products provide links to various programming languages. The link may allow the prototype screens to be fed to the programming language for subsequent enhancement and use, or simply allow repository access.
Recall that most database management systems or fourth-generation languages include powerful applications generators for quickly prototyping fully functional systems. If a prototype database was created during database design, the test data stored in the database can be used to prototype reports and screens. Most systems prototyping tools include report writers and query languages that allow analysts (or systems users) to quickly design and generate samples of outputs.

33. 474 Figure 13.6 Sample of CASE Tool for Prototyping
No additional notes provided.

34. 1 2 4 5 3 475 Figure 13.7 Sample Report Customization Prototype Screen
The figure above represents the prototype of the screen that the user can use to choose a particular report (or graph) and customize its content. The following points should be noted:
A tab dialogue box is used to allow the user to select between obtaining a report or graph. A tab control is used to present a series of related information. If the user clicks on the tab labeled Graph, information would be display for customizing the output as a graph.
A drop-down list is used to select the desired report. The user can click on the downward arrow to obtain a list of possible reports to choose from.
The user is provided with a series of check boxes that correspond to general options for customizing the selected report. The user simply “checks” those options they wish to appear on the report.
A group of check boxes is also used to allow the user to select one or more product categories they wish to include on the report.
Once again, a group of check boxes are used to allow the user to further customize the report to their liking. Here the user is allowed to indicate the type of summary information or totals they wish to have reported for each product category.

35. 476 Figure 13.8 Sample Report Prototype Screen
The figure above is a prototype of a typical report that may result from the previous customization screen. Examine the content and appearance of the tabular report. We draw your attention to the following:
Icons are included for activating commands for allowing the user to “zoom” the report to 100%, fit the report to window size, and to adjust the page width. These features take into consideration the user and often times difficult task of viewing a report on a display screen.
Buttons are included for activating commands were included to permit the user to easily move from one report page to another (Notice that the window’s scroll bar is active allowing the user to scroll through the report.)
A Printer Icon is provided as a visual clue to suggest that the user can request a hardcopy of the report.
The user is given the opportunity to save the report as a file or to load a different report.

36. 2 1 3 476-477 Figure 13.9 Sample Graph Prototype Screen
Let’s take a look at a prototype of a graphic version of the MEMBER RESPONSE SUMMARY output. Note the following:
Notice that the graph is clearly labeled along the vertical and horizontal axis.
A legend has been provided to aid in interpreting the graph bars.
The designer has implemented drill-down capability. Drill-down is used to allow the user to get additional, more detailed data about a component. Here, the user clicked on a portion of a graph bar and as a result was provided with the specific data value. 1 3

37. Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
Summary
Introduction
Principles & Guidelines for Output Design
How to Prototype & Design Computer Outputs