1. Ch 9. Collecting primary data through observation
Participation observation
(1) Researcher’s roles
(2) Factors that determine the choice
(3) Data collection and analysis
(4) Threats to reliability and validity
2. Structured observation
(1) Data collection and analysis
(2) Threats to reliability and validity

2. Participant vs. Structured
Participant observation:
- qualitative data collection methods
- Derives from social anthropology
- Discover the meanings that people attach to their actions
Structured observation:
- Quantitative data collection methods
- Concerns with quantifying behaviour, e.g. Frequency of people’s actions
- A systematic and a high level of predetermined structure

3. Knowledge recall (1) (2) (3) (4) (5) (6)
Figure 5.1 The research ‘onion’
Source: © Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2006

4. Philosophical perspectives: Ontology objectivism, subjectivism
Knowledge recall
Philosophical perspectives:
Ontology
objectivism,
subjectivism
pragmatism,
Epistemology
positivism,
realism,
interpretivism,
Ontology: concerns with the view on nature of reality.
The assumption about the way the research objects operates.
The commitment held to particular view.
Epistemology: concerns with the methods.
Can this research approach be the same as the approach to studying the natural sciences?

5. 1. Participant observation
Definition
- Researcher attempts to participate fully in the lives and activities and becomes a member of their group, org. or community.
- This enables researchers to share their experiences by not merely observing what is happening but also feeling it.
Researcher immerse in the research setting, with the objective of sharing in people’s lives while attempting to learn their symbolic world.
It is not popular in management and business research, but possibly in combination with other methods.

6. Researcher’s role in participant observation

7. (1) researcher’s role
(a) Participant as observer
Researcher reveals his identity of researcher and research purpose to the group.
Researcher participate in the activities that the group does in daily basis.
Advantage: researcher could as questions in the research subjects to enhance his understanding
Ethical issues: no much concerns with

8. (b) Observer as participant
A spectator (观察者) of the group to be studies
Researchers identity and purpose is declared
Observe without taking part in the activities
Advantage: can focus on your researcher role; can concentrate on your discussion with the group.
Disadvantage: lack of emotional involvement, no real feelings
No much ethical issues to be concerned with.

9. (c) Complete participant
Researcher attempts to become a member of the group to be studied
Researcher does NOT reveal the identity
Researcher does NOT reveal the purpose
Position of spy
Ethics:
- researcher is trusted by the group with a very close relationship,
- researcher is shared with information that they would not share if they know your true purpose.

10. (d) Complete observer
Researcher does NOT reveal the purpose of his activity when he is observing.
Researcher does NOT participate in the activities of the group.
Ethics: consent of the group on their personal data?

11. (2) Factors determine the choice of the roles
Factors determine the choice of participant
observer role
The purpose of your research
The time you have
The degree to which you feel to participant observation
Organisational access
Ethical considerations

12. (3) Data collection
Types of Data collection
Primary observations: recording when it is happening or is said
Secondary observations: statement, interpretations of observers about what has happened.
Experiential (经验的)data: perceptions and feelings as researcher experiences the process his is researching.
Data on factors material to the research setting: e.g. positions, adm. structures, etc.

13. Types of Data collection
Descriptive observation
- physical setting, key participants, activities, particular events and sequence; attendant processes, emotions involved
Narrative account -

14. (4). Threats to reliability and validity
Ecological validity (生态效度): the methods, materials and setting of the study must approximate the real-life situation that is under investigation
- very high on ecological validity
- may also threats to validity, e.g. history, maturation
To reliability: observer bias
To enhance the reliability and validity
Self-check the conclusions
Informant (信息报告者) verification for “triangulation”

15. 2. Structured observation
(1) Data collection and analysis
Selection of coding schedule
off-the-shelf (现成的，通用的) coding schedule
a existing coding schedule that can meet the research purpose
Self-developed coding schedule
focused
unambiguous
non-context dependent (不依托于背景）
explicitly defined
exhaustive (全面彻底的)
mutually exclusive
easy to record

16. 2. Structured observation
(1) Data collection and analysis
Example: (1) staff behaviours at fastfoodchain
Part II. Delighting the customer
Bahaviour Observation Comments
1. Smiles with eye contact
2. Greetings in a friendly manner
3. Suggests extra items not being ordered
4. Place items in a clean tray with trayliner (托盘衬板)
facing customer
5. Explains to customer reasons for delays …

17. 2. Structured observation
Example: (2) group behaviours at office
Initial arrangement of group: A, B, C, D, E, F
Name of group member
Bahaviour A B C D E F
1. Taking initiative, e.g. attempted leadership,
Seek suggestions, offer directions
2. Brainstorming, e.g. offer valid ideas
3. Offer positive ideas: e.g. make helpful suggestions
, attempt to problem solve
4. Drawing in others, e.g. encouraging contributions
seek ideas and opinions
5. Harmonising: e.g. act as peacemaker,
calm things down, compromising …

18. (2) Threats to validity and reliability
Subject error
The observed subjects might be a untypical, or unpopular one in which researcher is interested.
Time error
The time of observation does NOT provide data that are typical of the total time period in which researcher is interested.
Observer effect
Minimal interaction: observer tries as much as possible to melt into the background and having as little interaction as possible with the subjects of the observation.
Habituation: subjects being observed become familiar with the process of observation so that they take it for granted.