1. Functional Programming Element of Functional Programming

2. Functional Programming  Functional Programming began as computing with expressions.  The following are examples: 2 An integer constant X A variable log n Function log applied to n 2+3 Function + applied to 2 and 3

3. Functional Programming  Expressions can also include conditionals and function definitions. Example: The value of following condition expression is the maximum of x and y: if (x > y) then x else y

4. Functional Programming  For concreteness, specific ML examples will be written in a typewriter-like font;  For example:  Computing with expressions will be introduced by designing a little language of expressions. 2 + 2; val it = 4 : int

5. A LITTLE LANGUAGE OF EXPRESSIONS  Basic Values  Constants: Names for Basic Values  Operations  Expressions  Convenient Extensions  Local Declarations

6. A LITTLE LANGUAGE OF EXPRESSIONS  Expressions are formed by giving names to values and to operations on them  The little language manipulates just one type of value: geometric objects called quilts.

7. Example : Quilt What is Quilt?

8. Little Quilt  Little Quilt manipulates geometric objects with  Height  Width  Texture

9. Basic Values  Given two primitive objects in the language are the square pieces:  Each quilt has A fixed direction or orientation A height A width A texture

10. Operations  Quilt can be turned and can be sewn together turn sew

11. Rules 1.A quilt is one of the primitive pieces, or 2.It is formed by turning a guilt clockwise 90, or 3.It is formed by sewing a quilt to the right of another quilt of equal height 4.Nothing else is a quilt Quilts and the operations on them are specified by the following rules:

12. Constants: Names for Basic Values  The first step in construction a language to specify quilts is to give names to the primitive pieces and to the operations on quilts Name “a” Name “b” Operation called turn sew

13. Expressions  The syntax of expressions mirrors the definition of quilts:  Complex expressions are built up from simpler ones, ::= a | b | turn( ) | sew(, )

14. Expressions Sew(turn(turn(b)),a) No expression quilt 1 b 2 turn(b) 3 turn(turn(b)) 4 a 5 sew(turn(turn(b)),a)

15. Convenient Extensions  Expressions will now be extended by allowing functions from quilts to quilts.  It would be convenient to give names to the operations.  Once defined, functions like unturn and pile can used as if they were built in Fun unturn(x) = turn(turn(turn(x))) Fun pile(x,y) = unturn(sew(turn(y),turn(x)))

16. Local Declarations  Let-expressions or let-bindings allow declarations to appear within expressions.  Let-expression Form Let in end For example let fun unturn(x) = turn(turn(turn(x))) fun pile(x,y) = unturn(sew(turn(y),turn(x))) in pile(unturn(b),turn(b)) end

17. User-Defined Names for Values  The final extension is convenient for writing large expressions in terms of simpler ones.  A value declaration form:  Gives a name to a value val =

18.  Value declarations are used together with let- bindings.  An expression of the form let val x=E1 in E2 end let val bnw = unturn(b) in pile(bnw,turn(b)) end Rewrite Pile(unturn(b),turn(b))

19. Review: Design of Little Quilt  The language Little Quilt was defined by starting with values and operations.  The values are quilts, built up from two square pieces;  The operations are for turning and sewing quilts.  The language began with the name a and b for the square pieces and  The names turn and sew for the operations

20. Specification of a quilt Let fun unturn(x) = turn(turn(turn(x))) fun pile(x,y) = unturn(sew(turn(y),turn(x))) val aa = pile(a,turn(turn(a))) val bb = pile(unturn(b),turn(b)) val p = sew(bb,aa) val q = sew(aa,bb) In pile(p,q) end

21. Summary of Little Quilt ::= a | b ::= turn( ) | sew(, ) ::= let in end ::= | ::= fun ( ) = ::= |, ::= ( ) ::= |, ::= val = ::=

22. TYPEs:Values and Operations  A types consists of a set of elements called values together with a set of functions called operations.  We will consider methods for defining structured values such as products, lists, and functions.

23. The syntax of type expressions ::= |  | * | list

24. Structured value  Structured values such as lists can be used as freely in functional languages as basic values like integers and strings  Value in a function language take advantage of the underlying machine, but are not tied to it.

25. Operations for Constructing and Inspecting Values  The structuring methods will be presented by specifying a set of values together with a set of operations.  Concentrate on operations for constructing and inspecting the elements of the set.  For example To Extend a list by adding a new first element To test whether a list is empty

26. Operations for Constructing and Inspecting Values  Basic Types  Operations on Basic Values  Products of Types  Operations on Pairs  List of Elements  Operations on Lists

27. Basic Types  A type is basic if its values are atomic  If the values are treated as whole elements, with no internal structure. For example The boolean values in the set {true,false}

28. Operations on Basic Values  Basic values have no internal structure, so the only operation defined for all basic types is a comparison for equality; For example The equality 2 = 2 is true, The inequality 2!=2 is false

29. Operations on Basic Values  Technically, an operation is a function  The equality test on integers is a function from pairs of integers to boolean. The type int*int  bool

30. Products of Types  The product A*B of two types A and B consists of ordered pairs written as For Example (1,“one”) is a pair consisting of int:1 and string: “one” (a,b) ; where a is a value of type A and b is a value of type B

31. Products of Types  A product of n types A*A*A*…*A consists of tuples written as (a 1, a 2, a 3,…, a n ) ; where a i is a value of type A 1

32. Operations on Pairs  A pair is constructed from a and b by writing (a,b)  Associated with pairs are operations called projection functions to extract the first and second elements from a pair. The first element of the pair (a,b) is a The second element is b  Projection functions can be readily defined: fun first(x,y) = x fun second(x,y) = y

33. Lists of Elements  A list is a finite-length sequence of elements. For Example int list ; consists of all lists of integers. The type A list consists of all lists of elements, where each element belongs to type A

34. Lists of Elements  List elements will be written between brackets [ and ]  List elements will be separated by commas  The empty list is written equivalently as [ ] For Example [1, 2, 3] is a list of three integers [“red”, “white”, “blue”] is a list of three strings

35. Operations on Lists  Lists-manipulation programs must be prepared to construct and inspect lists of any length.  The following operations on list are from ML: null(x)True is x is the empty list hd(x)The first or head element of list x. tl(x)The tail or rest of the list. a::xConstruct a list with head a and tail x

36. Operations on Lists For Example Given x is [1, 2, 3] Null(x)false Hd(x)1 Tl(x)[2, 3] From the following equalities: [1, 2, 3] = 1::[2, 3] = 1::2::[3] = 1::2::3::[]

37. Functions from a Domain to a Range  The type A  B is the set of all functions from A to B For Example If Q is the set of quilt then function turn from quilts to quilts is Q  Q function sew form pairs of quits to quilts is Q*Q  Q

38. Functions from a Domain to a Range  A function f in A  B is total  A function f in A  B is partial If it associates an element of B with each element of A A is called the domain and B is called the range of f. It is possible for there to be no element of B associated with an element of A

39. Function Application  The set A  B is application which takes a function f in A  B and an element a in A and yields and element b of B. For Example  A function is applied in ML; f a is the application of f to a.

40. APPOACHES TO EXPRESSION EVALUATION  The rules for expression are base on the structure of expressions E1 + E2 1.Evaluate the subexpressions E1 and 2.Evaluate the subexpressions E2 and 3.Add two values

41. Innermost Evaluation  Evaluate the expression represented by  Substitute the result for the formal in the function body  Evaluate the body  Return its value as the answer

42. Selection Evaluate  is an expression that evaluates to either true or false.  True : is evaluated  False : is evaluated If then else

43. Evaluation of Recursive Functions  The actual parameters are evaluated and substituted into the function body. Length(X) ((cond (null X) 0 (+ 1 (length(cdrX))))) Length([“hello”, “world”]) = 1 + length([“world”]) = 1 + 1 + length([]) = 1 + 1 + 0 = 2

44. Othermost Evaluation  Substitute the actual for the formal in the function body  Evaluate the body  Return its value as the answer.

45. Example Function Fun f(x) = if x > 100 then x-10 else f(f(x+11))

46. Innermost Evaluate F(100) = if 100>100 then 100-10 else f(f(100+11)) = f(f(100+11)) = f(f(111)) = f( if 111> 100 then 111-10 else f(f(111+11)) ) = f(111-10) = f(101) = if 101>100 then 101-10 else f(f(101+11)) = 101 – 10 = 91

47. Outermost Evaluate F(100) = if 100>100 then 100-10 else f(f(100+11)) = f(f(100+11)) = if f(111> 100) then f(111+11)-10 else f(f(f(100+11)+11)) ) F(100+11) = if 100+11> 100 then 100+11-10 else f(f(100+11+11)) = if 111>100 then 100+11-10 else f(f(100+11+11)) = 100+11-10 = 111-10 = 101

48. LEXICAL SCOPE  Renaming is made precide by introducing a notion of local or “bound” variables;bound occurrences of variables can be renamed without changing the meaning of a program fun successor(x) = x + 1 fun successor(n) = n + 1

49. Val Bindings  Binding occurrence or simply binding of x  All occurrences of x in E2 are said to be within the scope of this binding  Occurrences of x in E1 are not in the scope of this binding of x let val x=E1 in E2 end let val x=2 in x+x end

50. Fun Bindings  This binding of the formal parameter x is visible only to the occurrences of x in E1  This binding of the function name f is visible to all occurrences of f in both E1 and E2 let fun f(x)=E1 in E2 end let fun f(x)=x+1 in 2*f(x) end