1. Testing and Individual Differences
Chapter, 11

2. How do we measure individual differences?
Core Concept:
Measuring individual differences is an essential component of psychology, but strict guidelines and ethical standards must be followed to ensure results and conclusions are valid and appropriate

3. Validity
Validity is the term use when asking whether a test measures what it purports to measure.
For example: if you were to take a psychology test on which all the questions were related to chemistry, it would have a very low validity score.
Types:
Face validity: whether a test looks like it tests what its supposed to.
Content validity: representative of a larger body of knowledge (AP EXAM)
Item analysis: each question examined to see if it relates back to the objective.
Criterion validity: measures performance of the test taker against a specific learning goal.

4. Reliability
Reliability reflects whether a test yields the same results over time.
Example: If you were to take a test twice and get 70% right the first time and 30% right the second time, that test would be revealed to have very low reliability.
Types:
Test-retest reliability: compare the scores of the same test, same taker.
Split-half reliability: Test is split into two, the halves of the test are compared.

5. Standardization and Norms
How can tests be used to compare individuals?
1) the administration of and scoring guidelines are the same for each student.
2) the results of the test of the test can be used to draw conclusions about the test takers in regard to the objective of the tests.
Norms: How can results be compared?
Statistics! Statistics are used to establish what is called a normal curve or bell curve.
Normal range – Scores falling near the middle of a normal distribution

6. The Normal Distribution of IQ Scores

7. Types of Test There are two types of test: objective and subjective.
Objective tests: generally multiple choice and can be scored easily by a machine and the results presented and interpreted quickly.
Meyers Briggs, MMPI

8. Types of Test Subjective:
Individuals are given an ambiguous figure and asked to describe what they see or are given open ended situations and asked to finish a story.
TAT Test, Rorschach Inkblot test
An issue: Inter-Rater Reliability: a measure of how similarly two different test scorers would score on the test.

9. Ethics Ethical concerns related to testing involve:
The confidentiality of the test results
How to report the results
How to use the test to compare individuals
The impact of tests on society as a whole

10. How is Intelligence Measured?
Core Concept:
Intelligence testing has a history of controversy, but most psychologists now view intelligence as a normally distributed trait that can be measured by performance on a variety of tasks

11. Binet and Simon
In 1904, France passed a law that required all French children to attend school and the government needed a means of identifying those who needed remedial help.
Binet and Simon were asked to design a test for this purpose. They responded with 30 problems sampling a variety of abilities.
This test successfully predicted which children could, or could not, handle normal school work.

12. Binet and Simon
Binet-Simon Test calculated a child’s mental age and compared it to his or her chronological age.
4 Important features:
1. Estimate of current performance, not a measure of innate intelligence.
2. Test scores were used to identify children who needed special help, not to label them.
3.They emphasized that training and opportunity could affect intelligence.
4. They constructed their test empirically.

13. American Psychologist Borrow the Test
American psychologist borrow Binet-Simon test and change it in these ways:
1. Changed it to the IQ Test.
2. Modified the scoring procedure, expanded the test’s content, and obtained scores from a large normative group of people, including adults.
Thoughts?

14. Why? Why did IQ tests become quickly so popular in the US. 3 Reasons:
1.Immigration ( causing global economic, social, and political crisis’)
2. New laws requiring Universal Education.
3. WW1—and the military needed a way of accessing and classifying recruits.

15. New Form
The Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale is the most respected of the new American tests of intelligence.
Lewis Terman adapted the original test for U.S. children by standardizing its administration and age level norms.
Better suited for spotting learning problems.
He introduced the concept of the Intelligence Quotient (IQ)

16. Stanford-Binet
Intelligence quotient – A numerical score on an intelligence test, original computed by dividing a person’s mental age by chronological age and multiplying by 100.
IQ= Mental Age x100
_____________________
Chronological Age

17. Today Wide choice of intelligence tests.
Most prominent: Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale (WAIS) (WAIC) children (WPPSI) Pre school.
Measures: vocabulary, verbal comprehension, arithmetic ability, similarities.
Individual tests, given to one person at a time.

18. Problems with IQ Formula
Problems quickly arose when psychologist used this formula on adults.
So an example now:
IQ = Mental Age =15x 100 = 50
__________ ___
Chronological 30

19. Exceptional Children
Mental retardation – Often conceived as representing the lower 2% of the IQ range
Giftedness – Often conceived as representing the upper 2% of the IQ range

20. Mental Retardation
Involves “significantly sub average intellectual functioning” that becomes apparent before 18.
Also involves limitations in at least two of the following areas: “communication, self-care, home living, social skills, community use, self direction, health and safety, academics, leisure, and work.”

21. Causes Many causes: Genetic Environmental (Fetal Alcohol Syndrome)
Postnatal accidents that damage the cognitive regions of the brain.
Or deprivation and neglect.

22. Cures
Although currently there are no cures, there are some preventative measures.
PKU- a test preformed on newborn babies. Can detect early cases and by special diet some types can be prevented.
But, mainly the ways to handle mental retardation center around: special ed programs, counseling, and life centered programs.

23. Giftedness Top 1 or 2 % of IQ tests. They excel in most areas.
Terman’s Longitudinal Study.
Dealing:
Enroll child in special after school classes.
Hire a tutor
Send the child to a private school
Do nothing special

24. What Are the Components of Intelligence?
Core Concept:
Some psychologists believe that the essence of intelligence is a single, general factor, while others believe intelligence is best described as a collection of distinct abilities

25. What Are the Components of Intelligence?
Savant syndrome – Found in individuals who have a remarkable talent even though they are mentally slow in other domains
Twins

26. Psychometric Theories
Psychometric: field of “mental measurements”. Provided us with most of our IQ tests, achievement tests, and personality tests.

27. G Factor Developed by Charles Spearman in the 1920’s
g Factor – A general ability, (innate) as the main factor underlying all intelligent mental activity
Recent neuroscience has found some support for this theory. All various tests of g, use a portion of the brain’s frontal lobe.

28. Cattell Is back
Using mathematical techniques, Cattell determined that general intelligence can be broken down into 2 components.
Crystallized intelligence – The knowledge a person has acquired, plus the ability to access that knowledge
Fluid intelligence – The ability to see complex relationships and solve problems

29. Cognitive Theories
20th century cognitive view said that intelligence involves cognitive processes that contribute to success in many areas of life—not just school.
Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory
Gardner’s Multiple Intelligences

30. Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory

34. Gardner’s Multiple Intelligence

42. Gardner’s Three New Intelligences
Naturalistic intelligence: classifying living things as members of diverse groups.
Spiritual intelligence: abstract spiritual terms.
Existential intelligence: largest and smallest components of the universe (death).
Cultural western societies promote the first 2 types, while other societies value one or more other kinds.

43. Psychology in Your Life

44. How Do Psychologists Explain IQ Differences Among Groups?
Intelligence can have different meanings in different cultures.
Pacifically, navigating a boat more important or your SAT score?
Core concept: While most psychologists agree that both heredity and environment affect intelligence, they disagree on the source of IQ differences among racial and social groups

45. Intelligence/ Immigration
Congress passed the 1924 Immigration Restriction Act that restricted immigration for people who were proved to be “inferior intellect”.

46. Intelligence influenced by Heredity
Hereditarian arguments maintain that intelligence is substantially influenced by genetics.
Studies:

47. Intelligence influenced by Environment
Environmental approaches argue that intelligence can be dramatically shaped by influences such as
Health
Economics
Education

48. Heritability and Group Differences
Heritability – Amount of trait variation within a group, raised under the same conditions, that can be attributed to genetic differences
Heritability says nothing about between-group differences

49. Heritability and Group Differences
Research with twins and adopted children shows genetic influences on a wide range of attributes, including intelligence
Research has also shown that racial and class differences in IQ scores can be eliminated by environmental changes

50. The Jensen Controversy

51. The Scarr and Weinberg Adoption Study

52. Social Class and IQ

53. Head Start

54. Test Biases

55. The Bell Curve