1. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE 13e CHAPTER 9: Sustaining Biodiversity: The Ecosystem Approach

2. Wangari Maathai and the Green Belt Movement Began in Kenya in 1977 Organizes poor women in rural Kenya 50,000 members protect forests Planted 20 million trees –Fruits –Building materials –Firewood Similar programs in 30 African countries 2004: Nobel Peace Prize

3. 9-1 What Are Major Threats to Forest Ecosystems? Concept 9-1 Ecologically valuable forest ecosystems are being cut and burned at unsustainable rates in many parts of the world.

4. Types of Forests Forests cover 30% of earth’s land surface Old-growth forests Second-growth forests Tree plantation

5. Fig. 9-2, p. 180

6. Fig. 9-3, p. 180

7. Years of growth Weak trees removed Seedlings planted Clear cut 30 yrs 25 yrs 5 yrs10 yrs 15 yrs Fig. 9-3, p. 180

9. Fig. 9-4, p. 181

10. Natural Capital Fuelwood Lumber Pulp to make paper Mining Livestock grazing Recreation Jobs Support energy flow and chemical cycling Reduce soil erosion Absorb and release water Purify water and air Influence local and regional climate Store atmospheric carbon Provide numerous wildlife habitats Ecological Services Economic Services Forests

11. Science Focus: Putting a Price Tag on Nature’s Ecological Services Estimated value of earth’s ecological services –$33.2 trillion per year –$4.7 trillion per year for forests Need to start factoring values into land use Ecological services can be a sustainable source of ecological income

12. Fig. 9-A, p. 181

13. Harvest Methods Step one: build roads –Erosion –Invasive species –Open up for human invasion Step two: logging operations –Selective cutting –Clear cutting –Strip cutting

14. Fig. 9-5, p. 182

15. Cleared plots for agriculture New highway Old growth Highway Cleared plots for grazing Fig. 9-5, p. 182

16. New highway Old growth Cleared plots for agriculture Highway Cleared plots for grazing Stepped Art Fig. 9-5, p. 182

17. Fig. 9-6, p. 182

18. Clear stream (a) Selective cutting Fig. 9-6, p. 182

20. Muddy stream (b) Clear-cutting Fig. 9-6, p. 182

22. Cut 1 year ago (c) Strip cutting Uncut Clear stream Uncut Cut 3–10 years ago Dirt road Fig. 9-6, p. 182

23. Stepped Art (b) Clear-cutting Muddy stream Uncut Cut 1 year ago Dirt road Cut 3–10 years ago Uncut Clear stream (a) Selective cutting (c) Strip cutting Clear stream Fig. 9-6, p. 182

24. Fig. 9-7, p. 182

25. Forests and Fires Surface fires –Burn undergrowth only –Cool fire –Ecological benefits Crown fires –Burn the entire tree –Hot fire –Occur in forests with lack of surface fires

26. Fig. 9-8, p. 183

28. Loss of Original Forests Deforestation 46% in 8,000 years, most since 1950 Most in tropical areas, developing countries Estimated loss of 40% intact forests within next 20 years

29. Fig. 9-9, p. 184

30. Fig. 9-10, p. 184

31. Good News on Forests 2000–2007 net total forested area stabilized or increased Most of the increase due to tree plantations Net loss of terrestrial biodiversity

32. Return of Forests in the United States (1) U.S. forests –Cover ~30% of land –Contain ~80% of wildlife species –Supply ~67% of nation’s surface water Forest cover greater now than in 1920 Secondary succession

33. Return of Forests in the United States (2) Second- and third-growth forests fairly diverse More wood grown than cut 40% of forests in National Forest System Some forests transformed into tree plantations

34. Tropical Forests Cover 6% of earth’s land area Habitat for 50% of terrestrial plants and animals –Vulnerable to extinction – specialized niches Rapid loss of 50,000–170,000 km 2 per year Some second-growth forests

35. Causes of Tropical Forest Deforestation and Degradation Population growth and poverty Economic reasons –Logging –Ranching –Farming Government subsidies Fires raise temperatures and reduce rainfall

36. Fig. 9-11, p. 186

37. Natural Capital Degradation Not valuing ecological services Crop and timber exports Government policies Poverty Population growth Roads Fires Settler farming Cash crops Cattle ranching Logging Tree plantations Basic CausesSecondary Causes Settler farming Cattle ranching Tree plantations Cash crops Logging Roads Fires Major Causes of the Destruction and Degradation of Tropical Forests

38. Fig. 9-12, p. 187

39. 9-2 How Should We Manage and Sustain Forests? Concept 9-2 We can sustain forests by emphasizing the economic value of their ecological services, removing government subsidies that hasten their destruction, protecting old- growth forests, harvesting trees no faster than they are replenished, and planting trees.

40. Fig. 9-13, p. 188

41. Management of Forest Fires (1) Fire suppression in all types of forests Increased amounts of underbrush Increased probability of crown fires

42. Management of Forest Fires (2) Prescribed fires Allow some fires to burn Thin vegetation from forests Thin around vulnerable homes Decrease flammability of homes

43. Science Focus: Certifying Sustainably Grown Timber Forest Steward Council certification of forest operations –Environmentally sound practices –Sustainable yield harvest –Minimal erosion from operations –Retention of dead wood for wildlife habitat

44. Trees and Paper Many trees are cut for paper production Alternatives –Pulp from rice straw and agricultural residues (China) –Kenaf (U.S.) –Hemp

45. Fig. 9-14, p. 189

46. Ways to Reduce Tropical Deforestation Debt-for-nature swaps Conservation concessions Gentler logging methods Encourage use of wood substitutes

47. Fig. 9-15, p. 190

48. Sustaining Tropical Forests Protect the most diverse and endangered areas Educate settlers about sustainable agriculture and forestry Subsidize only sustainable forest use Protect forests with debt-for-nature swaps and conservation concessions Certify sustainably grown timber Reduce poverty Slow population growth Encourage regrowth through secondary succession Rehabilitate degraded areas Concentrate farming and ranching in already-cleared areas Prevention Solutions Restoration

49. 9-3 How Should We Manage and Sustain Grasslands? Concept 9-3 We can sustain the productivity of rangeland by controlling the number and distribution of grazing livestock and by restoring degraded grasslands.

50. Grasslands Provide important ecological services Second most used and altered ecosystem by humans 42% grazed by cattle, sheep, and goats – rangeland (open) and pasture (fenced) Overgrazing

51. Fig. 9-16, p. 191

52. Manage Rangelands Sustainably Practice rotational grazing Fence out riparian zone areas Suppress invader plants –Herbicides –Mechanical removal –Controlled burning –Short-term trampling

53. Fig. 9-17, p. 191

55. 9-4 How Should We Manage and Sustain Parks and Nature Reserves? Concept 9-4 We need to put more resources into sustaining existing parks and nature reserves and into protecting much more of the earth’s remaining undisturbed land area.

56. National Parks >1,100 national parks in 120 countries Only 1% of parks in developing countries are protected –Local people invade parks to survive –Logging –Mining –Poaching

57. Problems Protecting National Parks Illegal logging Illegal mining Wildlife poaching Most parks too small to protect large animals Invasion of nonnative species

58. Stresses on U.S. National Parks 58 major national parks Biggest problem is popularity Damage from nonnative species Threatened islands of biodiversity Need $6 billion for overdue repairs

59. Nature Reserves Occupy a Fraction of Earth 12% of earth’s land protected Only 5% fully protected – 95% reserved for human use Need for conservation –Minimum 20% of land in biodiversity reserves –Protection for all biomes

60. Solutions for Protection “Ecological insurance policy” Buffer zones around protected areas Locals to manage reserves and buffer zones United Nations: 531 biosphere reserves in 105 countries

61. Science Focus: Reintroducing the Gray Wolf to Yellowstone National Park Reduced to a few hundred in lower 48 by 1973 Keystone species Restoration proposal angered ranchers, hunters, loggers 1995 - reintroduced in Yellowstone, 124 by 2008 Positive ripple effect after reintroduction

62. Fig. 9-B, p. 193

63. Case Study: Costa Rica Superpower of biodiversity Conserved 25% of its land, 8 megareserves Government eliminated deforestation subsidies Paid landowners to maintain and restore tree coverage Boosts ecotourism

64. Fig. 9-18, p. 194

65. Caribbean SeaNicaragua Panama Costa Rica Buffer zone National parkland Pacific Ocean

66. Protecting Wilderness Protects Biodiversity Wilderness Preserves biodiversity Centers for evolution

67. Case Study: Controversy over Wilderness Protection in the U.S. 1964 Wilderness Act Ten-fold increase from 1970 to 2008 4.6% of U.S. land protected, 75% of that in Alaska

68. 9-5 How Can We Help to Sustain Terrestrial Biodiversity? Concept 9-5 We can help to sustain terrestrial biodiversity by identifying and protecting severely threatened areas (biodiversity hotspots), rehabilitating damaged ecosystems (using restoration ecology), and sharing with other species much of the land we dominate (using reconciliation ecology).

69. Three Principles to Protect Ecosystems 1.Map and inventory the world’s terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems 2.Locate and protect the most endangered ecosystems, with a focus on biodiversity 3.Seek to restore as many degraded ecosystems as possible

70. Protecting Global Biodiversity Hotspots 17 megadiversity countries, mostly in tropics and subtropics –Two-thirds of biodiversity Developing countries economically poor and biodiversity rich Protect biodiversity hotspots

71. Fig. 9-19, p. 196

72. Supplement 4, Fig. 2, p. S16

73. Ecological Restoration Restoration Rehabilitation Replacement Creating artificial ecosystems

74. Science-based Principles for Restoration Identify cause of degradation Stop abuse by reducing factors Reintroduce species if necessary Protect area from further degradation

75. Case Study: Ecological Restoration of Tropical Dry Forest in Costa Rica One of world’s largest ecological restoration projects Restore a degraded tropical dry forest and reconnect it to adjacent forests Involve 40,000 people in the surrounding area – biocultural restoration Ecotourism

76. Restoration Ecology Creating new habitats to conserve species diversity in areas where people live, work, play People learn to protect local species and ecosystems Sustainable ecotourism Golden Gate Park in San Francisco

77. Fig. 9-20, p. 198

78. 9-6 How Can We Help to Sustain Aquatic Biodiversity? Concept 9-6 We can help to sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.

79. Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems (1) Destroyed or degraded by human activities Coastal habitats disappearing 2-10 times faster than tropical forest Rising sea levels will destroy coral reefs and some low islands Ocean floor degradation 150 times larger than area clear-cut annually

80. Impacts on Aquatic Ecosystems (2) Freshwater habitat disruption –Dams –Water withdrawals from rivers Likely extinction –34% marine fish species –71% freshwater species –Greater than any other group of species

81. Fig. 9-21, p. 199

83. Overfishing Fishery Fishprint 157% overfishing 90% of large open-ocean fishes have disappeared since 1950

84. Fig. 9-22, p. 200

85. Case Study: Industrial Fish Harvesting Methods Trawler fishing Purse-seine fishing Longlining Drift-net fishing

86. Fig. 9-23, p. 201

87. Float Trawler fishing Drift-net fishing Purse-seine fishing Sonar Long line fishing lines with hooks Fish farming in cage Spotter airplane Deep sea aquaculture cage Fish caught by gills Buoy

88. Fish farming in cage Spotter airplane Trawler fishing Sonar Purse-seine fishing Long line fishing lines with hooks Deep sea aquaculture cage Drift-net fishing Float Buoy Fish caught by gills Stepped Art Fig. 9-23, p. 201

89. Why Is Protection of Marine Biodiversity So Difficult? Human aquatic ecological footprint expanding Not visible to most people Viewed as an inexhaustible resource Most ocean areas outside jurisdiction of a country

90. Solutions for Marine Ecosystems Protect endangered and threatened species Establish protected marine sanctuaries Marine reserves – work well and quickly Integrated coastal management Protect existing coastal wetlands

91. Fig. 9-24, p. 202

92. Managing Fisheries Fishery Regulations Set catch limits well below the maximum sustainable yield Improve monitoring and enforcement of regulations Economic Approaches Sharply reduce or eliminate fishing subsidies Charge fees for harvesting fish and shellfish from publicly owned offshore waters Certify sustainable fisheries Protect Areas Establish no-fishing areas Establish more marine protected areas Rely more on integrated coastal management Consumer Information Label sustainably harvested fish Publicize overfished and threatened species Bycatch Dump ballast water far at sea and replace with deep-sea water Filter organisms from ship ballast water Kill organisms in ship ballast water Nonnative Invasions Depend more on herbivorous fish species Control pollution more strictly Restrict coastal locations for fish farms Aquaculture Ban throwing edible and marketable fish back into the sea Use net escape devices for seabirds and sea turtles Use wide-meshed nets to allow escape of smaller fish Solutions

93. Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #1 The economic values of the important ecological services provided by the world’s ecosystems need to be included in the prices of goods and services.

94. Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #2 We can sustain terrestrial biodiversity by protecting severely threatened areas, restoring damaged ecosystems, and sharing with other species much of the land we dominate.

95. Three Big Ideas from This Chapter - #3 We can sustain aquatic biodiversity by establishing protected sanctuaries, managing coastal development, reducing water pollution, and preventing overfishing.

96. Animation: Ocean Provinces PLAY ANIMATION

97. Animation: Humans Affect Biodiversity PLAY ANIMATION

98. Animation: Habitat Loss and Fragmentation PLAY ANIMATION

99. Animation: Area and Distance Effects PLAY ANIMATION

100. Animation: Succession PLAY ANIMATION

101. Animation: Hubbard Brook Experiment PLAY ANIMATION

102. Animation: Effects of Air Pollution in Forests PLAY ANIMATION

103. Animation: Effects of Deforestation PLAY ANIMATION

104. Animation: Biodiversity Hot Spots PLAY ANIMATION

105. Animation: Resources Depletion and Degradation PLAY ANIMATION

106. Animation: Species Diversity By Latitude PLAY ANIMATION

107. Video: Easter Island PLAY VIDEO

108. Video: New Species Found PLAY VIDEO

109. Video: Bachelor Pad at the Zoo PLAY VIDEO

110. Video: Desertification in China PLAY VIDEO

111. Video: U.S. Forests PLAY VIDEO

112. Video: Marine Sanctuary PLAY VIDEO

113. Video: Sea Turtle Release PLAY VIDEO