1. Digestion

2. ingestion- taking large pieces of food into the body digestion- breaking down the food by mechanical and chemical means absorption- taking up the soluble digestion products into the body's cells assimilation- using the absorbed materials egestion- eliminating the undigested material *egest vs. excrete

3. The human digestive system is well adapted to all of these functions. It comprises a long tube, the alimentary canal or digestive tract (or simply gut) which extends from the mouth to the anus, together with a number of associated glands. The digestive systems made up of different tissues doing different jobs.

5. Parts of the Digestive Tract 1. Mouth (Buccal cavity) : The teeth and tongue physically break up the food into small pieces with a larger surface area, and form it into a ball or bolus. The salivary glands secrete saliva, which contains water to dissolve soluble substances, mucus for lubrication, lysozymes to kill bacteria and amylase to digest starch.

6. The food bolus is swallowed by an involuntary reflex action through the pharynx (the back of the mouth). During swallowing the trachea is blocked off by the epiglottis to stop food entering the lungs.

8. 2. Esophagus (gullet): This is a simple tube through the thorax, which connects the mouth to the rest of the gut. No digestion takes place. There is a thin epithelium, no villi, a few glands secreting mucus, and a thick muscle layer, which propels the food by peristalsis. This is a wave of circular muscle contraction, which passes down the esophagus and is completely involuntary. The esophagus is a soft tube that can be closed, unlike the trachea, which is a hard tube, held open by rings of cartilage.

9. 3. Stomach : This is an expandable bag where the food is stored for up to a few hours. There are three layers of muscle to churn the food into a liquid called chyme. This is gradually released in to the small intestine by a sphincter, a region of thick circular muscle that acts as a valve.

10. These secrete gastric juice, which contains: hydrochloric acid (pH 1) to kill bacteria (the acid does not help digestion, in fact it hinders it by denaturing most enzymes); mucus to lubricate the food and to line the epithelium to protect it from the acid; and the enzymes pepsin and rennin to digest proteins.

11. 4. Small Intestine This is about 6.5 m long, and can be divided into three sections:

12. a) The duodenum (30 cm long). Although this is short, almost all the digestion takes place here, due to two secretions: Pancreatic juice, secreted by the pancreas through the pancreatic duct. This contains numerous carbohydrase, protease and lipase enzymes. Bile, secreted by the liver, stored in the gall bladder, and released through the bile duct into the duodenum. Bile contains bile salts to aid lipid digestion, and the alkali sodium hydrogen carbonate to neutralise the stomach acid.

13. b) The jejunum (2 m long) and c) The ileum (4 m long). These two are similar in humans, and are the site of final digestion and all absorption. There are numerous glands in the mucosa and submucosa secreting enzymes, mucus and sodium hydrogen carbonate.

14. The internal surface area is increased enormously by three levels of folding: large folds of the mucosa, villi, and microvilli. Circular and longitudinal muscles propel the liquid food by peristalsis

15. 5.Large Intestine This comprises the caecum, appendix, ascending colon, transverse colon, descending colon and rectum. Food can spend 36 hours in the large intestine, while water is absorbed to form semi- solid faeces. The mucosa contains villi but no microvilli, and there are numerous glands secreting mucus. Faeces is made up of plant fibre (cellulose mainly), cholesterol, bile, mucus, mucosa cells (250g of cells are lost each day), bacteria and water, and is released by the anal sphincter. This is a rare example of an involuntary muscle that we can learn to control (during potty training).

19. Chemistry of Digestion Digestion of Carbohydrates By far the most abundant carbohydrate in the human diet is starch (in bread, potatoes, cereal, rice, pasta, biscuits, cake, etc), but there may also be a lot of sugar (mainly sucrose) and some glycogen (in meat).

20. Salivary amylase starts the digestion of starch. Very little digestion actually takes place, since amylase is quickly denatured in the stomach, but is does help to clean the mouth and reduce bacterial infection. Pancreatic amylase digests all the remaining starch in the duodenum. Amylase digests starch molecules from the ends of the chains in two-glucose units, forming the disaccharide maltose. Glycogen is also digested here.

21. Disaccharidases in the membrane of the ileum epithelial cells complete the digestion of disaccharides to monosaccharides. This includes maltose from starch digestion as well as any sucrose and lactose in the diet. There are three important disaccharidase enzymes:

23. The monsaccharides (glucose, fructose and galactose) are absorbed by active transport into the epithelial cells of the ileum, whence they diffuse into the blood capillaries of the villi. The carbohydrates that make up plant fibres (cellulose, hemicellulose, lignin, etc) cannot be digested, so pass through the digestive system as fibre.

24. Digestion of Proteins Rennin (in gastric juice) converts the soluble milk proteins into its insoluble calcium salt. This keeps in the stomach longer so that pepsin can digest it. Rennin is normally only produced by infant mammals. It is used commercially to make cheese. Pepsin (in gastric juice) digests proteins to peptides, 6-12 amino acids long. It is unusual in that it has an optimum pH of about 2 and stops working at neutral pH.

25. Pancreatic endopeptidases continue to digest proteins and peptides to short peptides in the duodenum. Exopeptidases in the membrane of the ileum epithelial cells complete the digestion of the short peptides to individual amino acids. Exopeptidases remove amino acids one by one from the ends of peptide chains.

26. Pepsin is synthesised as inactive pepsinogen, and activated by the acid in the stomach Rennin is synthesised as inactive prorennin, and activated by pepsin in the stomach The pancreatic exopeptidases are activated by specific enzymes in the duodenum

27. Digestion of Triglycerides Fats are emulsified by bile salts to form small oil droplets called micelles, which have a large surface area. Pancreatic lipase enzymes digest triglycerides to fatty acids and glycerol in the duodenum. Fatty acids and glycerol are lipid soluble and diffuse across the membrane (by lipid diffusion) into the epithelial cells of the villi in the ileum.

28. Other substances Many substances in the diet are composed of small molecules that need little or no digestion. These include sugars, mineral ions, vitamins and water. These are absorbed by different transport mechanisms: Cholesterol and the fat-soluble vitamins (A, D, E, K) are absorbed into the epithelial cells of the ileum by lipid diffusion Mineral ions and water-soluble vitamins are absorbed by passive transport in the ileum Dietary monosaccharides are absorbed by active transport in the ileum Water is absorbed by osmosis in the ileum and colon.

29. Disorders of accessory organs: hepatitis, gallstones Malnutrition: 13% of world’s population undernourished Eating disorders: anorexia nervosa, bulimia Appendicitis: low, right side pain Hiatal hernia: part of stomach above diaphragm – GERD- gastroesophageal reflux disease Disorders of Digestive System

30. Slide 14.18 Nutrition Carbohydrates: major energy source, simple or complex Lipids: cell components and energy sources, saturated or unsaturated Proteins: 20 amino acids Vitamins: fat soluble and water soluble Minerals: recommended daily allowance Fiber: some evidence decreases colon cancer

31. Accesory Organs: Aid Digestion and Absorption Pancreas: exocrine functions Secretes digestive enzymes and sodium bicarbonate Liver Produces bile (acts as emulsifer – begins fat breakdown Hepatic portal system: drains blood from digestive tract Metabolic functions: storage, synthesis, chemical processing Gallbladder: stores bile Slide 14.12

32. Figure 14.12 Slide 14.13A Large Intestine

33. Slide 14.13B. Large Intestine: Structure and Function Functions: absorbs nutrients and water, and eliminates waste Structure: Cecum (blind pouch), appendix Colon: ascending, transverse, descending, sigmoid Rectum, anus

34. Chapter 8 Summary: Outcomes Knowledge I can describe the chemical nature of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins and their enzymes, i.e., carbohydrases, proteases, and lipasese (8.1)I can describe the chemical nature of carbohydrates, fats, and proteins and their enzymes, i.e., carbohydrases, proteases, and lipasese (8.1) I can explain enzyme action and factors influencing that action, i.e., temperature, pH, substrate concentration, feedback inhibition, competitive inhibition (8.2)I can explain enzyme action and factors influencing that action, i.e., temperature, pH, substrate concentration, feedback inhibition, competitive inhibition (8.2) I can identify the principal structures of the digestive system, i.e., mouth, esophagus, stomach, sphincters, small and large intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder (8.3)I can identify the principal structures of the digestive system, i.e., mouth, esophagus, stomach, sphincters, small and large intestines, liver, pancreas, gallbladder (8.3) I can describe the chemical and physical processing of matter through the digestive system into the bloodstream (8.4)I can describe the chemical and physical processing of matter through the digestive system into the bloodstream (8.4) Chapter 8 Nutrients, Enzymes, and the Digestive System B i o l o g y