1. Practical Significance of DFDs  Many older information systems (legacy systems):  Are mainframe-based (inaccessible to most non-IT users);  Use non-relational (hierarchical) databases, and  Require second-generation programming languages (e.g. COBOL) to perform data input, queries, reporting. Thus, many IT professionals focus on data flows and physical implementation, not data relationships or RDBM design principles.  Many business processes are so complex that E-R design alone will not give analysts insight into their businesses 1 DFDs allow the analyst to determine: What does the organization do? How does the organization do it?

2. Creating DFDs 2 Define Entities External entities represent persons, processes or machines which produce data to be used by the system or receive data that is output by the system Examples: Student, Customer, Client Define Processes Processes are discrete actions that transform input data to output data Examples: Create Student Record, Calculate Purchase Cost, Register Client Student 2.1 Create Student Record

3. Creating DFDs (cont’d) Define Data Stores Data stores are temporary or permanent repositories of information that are inputs to or outputs of processes Examples: Student Master, Client List Define Data Flows Data flows represent the transfer of data over time from one “place” (entity, process, data store) to another Examples: New Student Information (from Student, to Student Master) 3 New Student Information Student Master D3

4. Creating DFDs (cont’d) Define the System A system is the collection of all business processes which perform tasks or produce outputs we care about. It is “what happens.” The system is a single process, connected to external entities Represented in a “Context Diagram” Define Subsystems A subsystem gives a more detailed view individual processes contained in the context diagram Includes data stores, more elementary processes 4 (Figure 4.13, Shelly, Cashman and Rosenblatt)

5. DFDs Created by Top-Down Analysis  Create a narrative: description of system  Create a Context Diagram that contains a single process (“the system”) and all entities which share data with the system  Explode the “parent” context diagram to produce a Diagram 0 (“child”) DFD  Create Diagram 1, 2, …, n DFDs that represent “explosions” of Diagram 0, 1, …, n-1 DFDs until a diagram has only “primitive” processes  Create process descriptions to be implemented by application programs: queries, macros, reports, programming languages 5 Context Diagram Diagram 0 DFD Diagram 1 DFDs Diagram n DFDs Narrative E-R Diagram Process Descriptions

6. Where to Begin Creating DFDs  Start with the data flow from an external entity and work forwards  Start with the data flow to an external entity and work backwards  Examine the data flows into or out of a data store  Examine data flows, entity connections and data stores associated with a particular process  Note fuzzy, ill-defined areas of the system for further clarification 6

7. What to Avoid in DFDs Making the data flow diagram too cluttered (e.g.  9 processes) 7 4 Perform Repair Processes with no outputs or no inputs 123 Many processes with a single input and output (linear flow) Processes whose inputs are obviously inadequate to yield outputs Having data flows terminate at data stores Connecting data stores directly to each other Courses Students Class List Connecting entities to anything other than processes Payroll Department Employees Process A Process B Process C

8. DFD Example: Bus Garage Repairs Buses come to a garage for repairs. A mechanic and helper perform the repair, record the reason for the repair and record the total cost of all parts used on a Shop Repair Order. Information on labor, parts and repair outcome is used for billing by the Accounting Department, parts monitoring by the inventory management computer system and a performance review by the supervisor.  Key process (“the system”): performing repairs and storing information related to repairs  External Entities: Bus, Mechanic, Helper, Supervisor, Inventory Management System, Accounting Department, etc.  Processes:  Record Bus ID and reason for repair  Determine parts needed  Perform repair  Calculate parts extended and total cost  Record labor hours, cost 8

9. DFD Example: Bus Garage Repairs (cont’d)  Data stores:  Personnel file  Repairs file  Bus master list  Parts list  Data flows:  Repair order  Bus record  Parts record  Employee timecard  Invoices 9

10. 10 Bus Mechanic Helper 0 Bus Repair Process SupervisorAccounting Bus Garage Context Diagram Mechanical problem to be repaired Labor Fixed mechanical problems Inventory Management System Repair summary List of parts used Labor, parts cost details

11. Bus Garage Diagram 0 DFD 11

12. Bus Garage Diagram 0 DFD (cont’d) 12

13. Process Modeling (Chapter 8)

14. Today’s Lecture Outline  Where are we?  Why Process Modeling?  What is Process Modeling?  Basic Symbols for Process Modeling  System Concept vs. Process Decomposition  Decomposition Rules  Basic Concepts about a Data Flow  Rules for Data Flow

15. Where are we? Project ID and Selection Project Initiation & Planning Analysis Logical Design Physical Design Implementation Maintenance Data Modeling Process Modeling Logic Modeling 1. Determine system requirements 2. Structure system requirements (ch. 8-10) 3. Generate alternatives for selection

16. Why Process Modeling? An Information Engineering Approach Generic IE Approach: STUDENT FACULTY SECTION COURSE ADVISING Student roster Advisees Listing Trans- cript Process enrollment Process registration Assign Advisor Students Courses Section Registration Data Model Process Model Info System

17. What is Process Modeling? Process modeling - a technique to organize and document the system structure and data flow between system’s PROCESSES and their relevant procedures to be implemented by a system. Data Flow Diagramming -  Another logical modeling tool to support the process modeling  the second step in the Analysis stage of SDLC

18. Basic Symbols of Process Modeling Data Flow Diagram and Its Components DFD : A diagram about the data flow between external agents (sources/ sinks) and the processes and data stores within a system Key Components: External Agent

19. An Example - A Data Flow Diagram for a Banking System

20. An Information System A Generic View In general, a system could be viewed as a single Process Information System 0 Source (Customer) Sink (Mgmt) Trans Data Report You could have multiple sources and sinks! This generic diagram is called “Context Diagram”

21. A Context Diagram  An overview of an organizational system that shows the system boundary, sources / sinks that interact with the system, and the major information flows between the entities and the system  A Context Diagram addresses only one process.  An example...

22. An Example - A Context Diagram for a Fast-Food IS

23. A Systematic Way for Process Modeling Process Decomposition In general, a system could be too complex to understand when viewed as a single Process  We need a Process Decomposition scheme i.e., to separate a system into its subsystems (sub-processes), which in turn could be further divided into smaller subsystems until the final subsystems become manageable units (i.e., primitive processes!) A divide and conquer strategy!!

24. Level-0 Diagram  A DFD that represents the primary functional processes in the system at the highest possible level  An Example...

25. An Example - A decomposed Context Diagram - Level 0 Diagram

26. An Example - A further decomposition A Level-1 Data Flow Diagram

27. Process Decomposition Rules Generic Decomposition Rules:  A process in a DFD could be either a parent process or a child process, or both.  A parent process must have two or more child processes.  A child process may further be decomposed into a set of child processes.

28. Decomposition Overview Context Diagram Level-0 Diagram

29. Three Major Types of Process  Function Process - A function is a set of related activities of the business (e.g., Marketing, Production, etc.)  Event Process - An event process is a logical unit of work that must be completed as a whole. (e.g., Process customer credit verification)  Primitive Process - a primitive process is a discrete, lowest-level activity/task required to complete an event. (e.g., Check the credit card balance)

30. Naming Rules for Processes  Function Process - use a Noun!  Event Process - Use a general action verb  Process Student registration.  Respond to...  Generate...  Primitive Process - use a strong action verb  Validate Student ID  Check...  Calculate...

31. Rules for Processes  No process can have only outputs (a miracle!)  No process can have only inputs (a black hole!)  No process can produce outputs with insufficient inputs ( a gray hole!)

32. Can You Identify Errors in This Diagram? 3.1.2 Create a new member account 3.1.1 Generate an Employee bank statement 3.1.3 Freeze member account number Accounts Receivable Department Employee Member Accounts Employees Existing account New account status Employee status Frozen account notification Employee address Bank statement Membership application What’s wrong? Black Hole Miracle Gray Hole

33. Processes in a DFD Correct vs. Incorrect IncorrectCorrect

34. It has two kinds of flow: a) Inflow to a Data Store (Create/Modify/Delete) b) Outflow from a Data Store (Read) Read Delete Create Modify Basic Concept About Data Flows...

35. Rules for Data Stores  Data cannot move directly from one data store to another data store -- it must be moved by a process.  Data cannot move directly from an outside source to a data store -- it must be moved by a process.  Data cannot move directly to an outside sink from a data store -- it must be moved by a process.  You need to use a Noun phrase to label each data flow

36. Data Flows in a DFD Incorrect vs. Correct Incorrect Correct

37. Naming Rules Data Flow  Use a singular noun phrase for each data flow  Ex: customer data, shipping report, …, etc.  Carry logical meaning only, i.e., no implication on data form or data structure  Minimum flow (no data flooding!!)  Should never be “Unnamed!!” - otherwise, there might be a modeling error.

38. Naming Scheme for Other DFD Components  Process (Event) - Use an Action Verb Phrase  Process member order, Generate bank statement,...  External Agent (Sink/Source) - Use a singular descriptive noun  Ex: Student, Customer, etc.  Data Store –  Use a plural descriptive noun (Members, Customers, etc.)  Or use a noun + file (Inventory file, Goods sold file)

39. Basic Rule in DFD Decomposition Balancing Principle -- the decomposed DFD (I.e., the next lower level DFD ) should retain the same number of inputs and outputs from its previous higher level DFD (I.e., No new inputs or outputs when a DFD is decomposed)

40. Balancing Principle Context Diagram Level-0 Diagram

41. Unbalanced DFD