1. Chemistry in the Troposphere
Sections 18.4

2. Objectives
Examine the constituents of the troposphere that affect air quality and the acidity of rainwater.
Analyze the effects of carbon dioxide on warming of the atmosphere and climatic changes.

3. Key Terms
Acid rain
Hemoglobin
Photochemical smog

4. Troposphere
Although the troposphere is made up almost entirely of nitrogen and oxygen, other gases present in relatively small amounts still have a profound effect on the troposphere.

5. Sulfur and Acid Rain
Sulfur compounds exist in natural, unpolluted air (volcanic gases, bacterial decay)
Sulfur release: 23% natural; 77% human activity
SO2 is one of most unpleasant/harmful pollutants
0.08 ppm or higher in typical urban areas (Table 18.4)
Most serious health hazard among pollutants

6. Sulfur and Acid Rain (cont.)
Sulfur dioxide is a by-product of the burning of coal or oil (source of 80% of total SO2 in US)
Coal and oil vary in their sulfur concentration
SO2 oxidizes to SO3 which reacts with moisture in the air to form sulfuric acid
Results in acid rain (pH of 4)
Uncontaminated rain is pH of 5.6; naturally acid due to CO2 (forms H2CO3 in water)

7. pH Values from Freshwater in US
pH of natural waters is
At pH below 4, all vertebrates, most invertebrates, and many microorganisms are destroyed

8. Other Sulfur Damage Acid reacts with metal & carbonates
High acidity in rainfall causes corrosion in building materials.
Marble and limestone (calcium carbonate) react with the acid; structures made from them erode.

9. Reducing Sulfur
To reduce sulfur quantity: remove it from coal/oil before burning
SO2 can be removed by injecting powdered limestone (CaCO3) which is converted to CaO
The CaO reacts with SO2 to form a precipitate of calcium sulfite.
EXPENSIVE!
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
CaO + SO2  CaSO3

10. Carbon Monoxide
CO is formed by incomplete combustion of carbon-containing materials (fossil fuels)
Most abundant of all pollutant gases (0.05 ppm; 66% from automobiles)
No direct threat to vegetation/materials. BUT it affects humans
Binds to iron in red blood cells (hemoglobin) responsible for transporting O2 to blood
Exposure to significant amount of CO can lower O2 levels to the point that loss of consciousness and death can result.

11. Carbon Monoxide
A person breathing air that is only 0.1% CO for just a few hours can reduce the blood’s normal oxygen capacity to 60%.

12. Carbon Monoxide
Products that can produce carbon monoxide must contain warning labels.
Carbon monoxide is colorless and odorless, so detectors are a good idea.

13. Nitrogen Oxides
What we recognize as smog, that brownish gas that hangs above large cities like Los Angeles, is primarily nitrogen dioxide, NO2.
It forms from the oxidation of nitric oxide, NO, a component of car exhaust.

14. Reactions forming Photochemical Smog
N2 + O2  2NO (reaction in engines) 2NO + O2  2NO2 (in the air) NO2 + hv  NO + O (photodissociation by sunlight of wavelength 393 nm) O + O2 + M  O3 + M* (formation of ozone- in the troposhpere!)

15. Ozone in Troposphere Undesirable pollutant Very reactive and toxic
Two ozone problems in our atmosphere:
1) Excessive amount in urban environments (where it is harmful)
2) Depletion in the stratosphere (where it is vital)

16. Other Components of Photochemical Smog
Carbon monoxide and hydrocarbons also contribute to air pollution that causes severe respiratory problems in many people.
Hydrocarbons are emitted from gasoline in engines

17. Photochemical Smog
As a result, government emission standards for automobile exhaust have become continually more stringent.

18. Water Vapor and Carbon Dioxide
Gases in the atmosphere form an insulating blanket that causes the Earth’s thermal consistency (temperature)
Two of the most important such gases are carbon dioxide and water vapor.

19. Water Vapor and Carbon Dioxide
Earth radiates energy into space at a rate equal to the rate it absorbs energy from the Sun (thermal balance)
Sun’s surface temp: 6000 K; From outer space, Earth is 254 K…why do we appear so much colder than our surface actually is?
Answer: H2O(g) and CO2 in troposphere absorb outgoing infrared radiation from Earth’s surface, hold it in, and we feel the heat
This blanketing effect is the “greenhouse effect.”

20. Water Vapor
Water vapor, high specific heat, is a major factor in greenhouse effect.
Major role in maintain temperature at night when Earth does not receive energy from the Sun
Ex: Desert areas (low H2O (g) concentration) have very hot days and very cool nights

21. Carbon Dioxide
CO2 plays a secondary, but important role in maintaining surface temperature
Combustion of fossil fuels (coal and oil) have increased CO2 levels (Figure 18.12)
This may be causing an unnatural increase in atmospheric temperatures.

22. Figure 18.12 Steady increase of CO2 (as high as 375 ppm)
May be responsible for global air temperature increase of 0.3 to 0.6 C over the past century
CO2 level is expected to double from sometime between (increase of 1-3 C)
Could result in major changes to global climate

23. Homework
on page 798
18.25 (a ONLY)
18.30 (a ONLY)

24. The World Ocean and Fresh Water
Section

25. Objectives
Examine the many salts that participate in the global cycling of the elements and nutrients.
Understand and analyze how humans may eventually use the world’s oceans for a source of fresh water through the process of desalination, distillation, and reverse osmosis.
Examine the treatment of freshwater sources to render them usable

26. Key Terms Salinity Desalination Reverse osmosis Biodegradable
Hard water
Lime-soda process
Ion exchange

27. Water Most common liquid on Earth Our bodies are 65% water by mass
72% of Earth’s surface
Our bodies are 65% water by mass
Unusually high melting point and boiling point, and a high heat capacity
Ability to dissolve many ionic and polar covalent substances

28. Seawater Constant composition and connected
97.2% of the water on Earth is the world ocean
2.1% is in ice caps and glaciers
0.6% is fresh water (lakes, rivers, groundwater)
0.1% is brackish water (like Great Salt Lake)

29. Salinity Salinity = mass (g) of dry salt in 1 kg of seawater
World ocean is about 35 (or 3.5% dissolved salts by mass)

30. Ocean The vast ocean contains many important compounds and minerals.
Table 18.6: 11 most common constituents of seawater

31. Ocean Salinity, density, and temperature vary as a function of depth
Sunlight penetrates only to 200 m
m “twilight zone”
Below 1000 m  pitch black and cold (4C)

32. Ocean Rarely used as a source for raw materials
Cost of extraction is too high
Only 3 substances are obtained from seawater: sodium chloride, bromide, and magnesium

33. Carbon Dioxide in the Ocean
Ocean absorbs CO2 large role in global climate
CO2 + H2O  H2CO3
More carbon dioxide, more carbonic acid
Carbon mostly exists as HCO3- and CO32- in the ocean; these ions buffer the pH between
Buffer is predicted to decrease as CO2 concentration increases
More calcium carbonate precipitate

34. Desalination
Seawater has too high a concentration of NaCl for human consumption.
Municipal water supplies restricted to no more than 500 ppm
It can be desalinated through reverse osmosis (large scale distillation is not efficient)

35. Reverse Osmosis
Osmosis net movement of solvent molecules, but not solute molecules, through a semipermeable membrane
Solvent passes from the more dilute solution into the more concentrated one
If high pressure is applied through reverse osmosis, the water can be forced in the opposite direction.
Solvent passes from more concentrated into more dilute solution

36. Fresh Water US fresh water reserve: 1.7 x 1015 liters
Renewed by rainfall
9 x 1011 liters of fresh water used daily in US
Used in agriculture, power, industry, household needs, drinking water
One American uses about 300L a day
Population and environmental pollutants are increasing more expensive to maintain supply

37. Dissolved Oxygen and Water Quality
Amount of dissolved oxygen is an important indicator of water quality
Cold water fish require at least 5 ppm
Aerobic bacteria consume dissolved oxygen to oxidize organic (biodegradable) material

38. Biodegradable Material
Also known as oxygen-demanding wastes
Sewage, industrial wastes, liquid wastes (meatpacking plants)
Excessive amounts will deplete the oxygen in the water

39. Biodegradable Material (cont)
In oxygen: biodegradable material becomes CO2, HCO3-, H2O, NO3-, SO42-, phosphates
Too much of these can reduce amt of dissolved oxygen; aerobic bacteria die
Anaerobic bacteria takes over  forms CH4, NH3, H2S, PH3
Foul odor of polluted waters
P and N are plant nutrients lead to excessive aquatic plants

40. Treatment of Municipal Water
The water for daily use comes from fresh water, underground sources, or reservoirs.
Most water in municipal systems is “used” been through sewage or industrial plants
Must be treated with 5 steps:
Coarse filtration
Sedimentation
Sand filtration
Aeration
Sterilization

41. Water Purification
CaO and Al2(SO4)3 are added to aid in the removal of very small particles (sedimentation step)

42. Homework
18.37, 38, 39, 43, 44