1. From Here to There Know how to use navigational aids.
1. State the elements of a map.
2. Describe how to use air navigational charts.
3. State the importance of flight planning.
4. State how to perform a preflight plan.
5. List the elements of flight.
6. State the procedures to perform when lost.

2. Overview 1. Map Elements 2. Air Navigation Charts 3. Flight Planning
4. Pilotage Preflight
5. The Flight
6. Lost!!!
In this lesson we will discuss:
1. Map Elements
2. Air Navigation Charts
3. Flight Planning
4. Pilotage Preflight
5. The Flight
6. Lost!!!

3. Map Elements The Four Elements of Navigation
Position - Some place that can be identified.
Legend - The position of one point in space relative to another without reference to the distance between them.
Distance - The space between two points measured by the length of a line joining them.
Time - An elapsed interval.
Map Elements
The Four Elements of Navigation
Position - Some place that can be identified.
Direction - The position of one point in space relative to another without reference to the distance between them.
Distance - The space between two points measured by the length of a line joining them.
Time - An elapsed interval.

4. Map Elements
Legend
A key to explain the meaning of the symbols on a map.
Identifies roads that are paved, under construction, finished, or a proposed route.
Lists the approximate sizes of towns and cities.
Identifies location of airports, campgrounds, county seats and county lines.
Lists State Capitols, points of interest, State parks, universities, rest areas, National and State forests.
Legend
A key to explain the meaning of the symbols on the map.
Identifies roads that are paved, under construction, finished, or a proposed route. Indicates whether it is a divided highway or single lane. Also identifies County, State, United States, and Interstate Highways.
Lists the approximate sizes of towns and cities.
Identifies location of airports, campgrounds, county seats and county lines.
Lists State Capitol, points of interest, State parks, universities, rest areas, National and State forests.

5. Map Elements Relief Features
Physical features as related to the height of the land surface.
Mountains, hills, plateaus, plains, and valleys.
Shown by various methods, such as shading, contour lines, spot elevations and variations in color.
Relief Features
Physical features as related to the height of the land surface.
Mountains, hills, plateaus, plains, and valleys.
Shown by various methods, such as shading, contour lines, spot elevations and variations in color.

6. Map Elements Contour A line connecting points of equal elevation.
On steep slopes, the contours are close together and, on gentle slopes, they are farther apart.
Contour
A line connecting points of equal elevation.
On steep slopes, the contours are close together and, on gentle slopes, they are farther apart.

7. Map Elements Spot Elevation
The height of a particular point of terrain above sea level.
Usually denoted by a number next to a dot indicating the height above sea level.
Spot Elevation
The height of a particular point of terrain above sea level.
Usually denoted by a number next to a dot indicating the height above sea level.

8. Map Elements Gradient Tints
Different colors are used to designate areas of different elevation.
Shading or darkening as the height decreases is a version of gradient tint.
Gradient Tints
Different colors are used to designate areas of different elevation.
Shading or darkening as the height decreases is a version of gradient tint.

9. Map Elements Cultural Features
Populated places, roads, railroads, installations, dams, and bridges are some of the many kinds of cultural features portrayed.
Standardized coded symbols denoting cultural features are usually shown on a map legend.
Some maps use pictorial symbols, which are self-explanatory and require no explanations in the legend.
Cultural Features
Populated places, roads, railroads, installations, dams, and bridges are some of the many kinds of cultural features portrayed.
Standardized coded symbols denoting cultural features are usually shown on a map legend.
Some maps use pictorial symbols, which are self-explanatory and require no explanations in the legend.

10. Map Elements Hydrographic Features
Oceans, coastlines, lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, and reefs are portrayed by either tinting or blank spaces on maps.
Some maps show vegetation, such as park areas, orchards, hedgerows, and vineyards.
Hydrographic Features
Oceans, coastlines, lakes, rivers, streams, swamps, and reefs are portrayed by either tinting or blank spaces on maps.
Some maps show vegetation, such as park areas, orchards, hedgerows, and vineyards. The maps that do portray vegetation are usually more detailed than is necessary for ordinary use.

11. Air Navigation Charts
A pilot of a light aircraft navigates primarily by landmarks and needs a chart emphasizing the landmarks easily identifiable from air.
An airline pilot is usually only near enough to the ground to navigate by landmarks during takeoff and landing.
Air Navigation Charts
A pilot of a light aircraft navigates primarily by landmarks and needs a chart emphasizing the landmarks easily identifiable from air.
An airline pilot is usually only near enough to the ground to navigate by landmarks during takeoff and landing.

12. Air Navigation Charts
The type of navigational charts depends on the mission to be flown. These charts are designed primarily for landmark flying.
Jet Navigation Charts
Operational Navigation Charts
Sectional Aeronautical Charts
The type of navigational charts depends on the mission to be flown. These charts are designed primarily for landmark flying.
Jet Navigation Charts
Operational Navigation Charts
Sectional Aeronautical Charts

13. Air Navigation Charts
The primary difference in the charts is their scale.
The scale may be given by a simple statement, such as, “1 inch equal 10 miles.”
The scale may also be given as a representative fraction, such as 1:500,000 or 1/500,000.
Another means of showing scale is the graphic scale.
The primary difference in the charts is their scale. The ratio between a given unit of length on a chart and the true distance that it represents on the Earth is the scale of the chart.
The scale may be given by a simple statement, such as, “1 inch equal 10 miles.” Meaning that 10 miles on the Earth’s surface is shown as 1 inch on the chart.
The scale may also be given as a representative fraction, such as 1:500,000 or 1/500,000. This means that one of any unit on the chart equals 500,000 of the same units on the Earth.
Another means of showing scale is the graphic scale. This is a graduated line usually printed along the border of a chart.

14. Air Navigation Charts Jet Navigation (JN) Chart
The Jet Navigational Chart has a scale of 1:2,000,000. The chart shows pertinent hydrographic and cultural features.
It is designed for planning and navigation for flights by long-range, high-speed aircraft.
Jet Navigation (JN) Chart
The Jet Navigational Chart has a scale of 1:2,000,000. The chart shows pertinent hydrographic and cultural features.
It is designed for planning and navigation for flights by long-range, high-speed aircraft. The detail primarily emphasizes features that a navigator can identify from a high altitude.

15. Air Navigation Charts Operation Navigation Chart (ONC)
The ONC shows more detail of hydrographic and cultural features than the JN.
The ONC scale of 1:1,000,000 is larger than the JN and, usually does not cover as large an area on a single chart.
The ONC is used for medium- and some low-level navigation for flights by higher speed aircraft.
Operation Navigation Chart (ONC)
The ONC shows more detail of hydrographic and cultural features than the JN.
The ONC scale of 1:1,000,000 is larger than the JN and, usually does not cover as large an area on a single chart.
The ONC is used for medium- and some low-level navigation for flights by higher speed aircraft.

16. Air Navigation Charts Sectional Aeronautical Chart
Considered the basic aeronautical chart of the United States. Its chart scale is 1:500,000 and it has the largest scale of the three basic aeronautical charts used for landmark flying.
Provides detailed ground features that are good for visual ground-chart orientation at predetermined checkpoints.
Sectional Aeronautical Chart
Considered the basic aeronautical chart of the United States. Its chart scale is 1:500,000 and it has the largest scale of the three basic aeronautical charts used for landmark flying.
Provides detailed ground features that are good for visual ground-chart orientation at predetermined checkpoints.

17. Air Navigation Charts Sectional Aeronautical Chart
It shows many types of hydrographic and cultural features. It also depicts all important navigation aids and air facilities.
Produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).
It shows many types of hydrographic and cultural features. It also depicts all important navigation aids and air facilities.
Produced by the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA).

18. Air Navigation Charts Parts of Sectional Chart Title Information
Location of the section.
Identifies the edition of the chart. Also identifies when the chart becomes obsolete.
Parts of Sectional Chart
Title Information
Location of the section
Identifies the edition of the chart. Also identifies when the chart becomes obsolete.

19. Air Navigation Charts Parts of Sectional Chart Relief Features
The terrain elevation scale is usually divided into various shades of color.
Examples of the coloring are: pale green at sea level; dark green from 1,000 to 2,000 feet; pale yellow from 2,000 to 3,000 feet; dark yellow from 3,000 to 5,000 feet; and salmon colored from 5,000 to the highest elevation depicted on the chart.
Relief Features
The terrain elevation scale is usually divided into various shades of color.
Examples of the coloring are: pale green at sea level; dark green from 1,000 to 2,000 feet; pale yellow from 2,000 to 3,000 feet; dark yellow from 3,000 to 5,000 feet; and salmon colored from 5,000 to the highest elevation depicted on the chart.

20. Air Navigation Charts Airports Airports with services Airports
Civil – Public use, processed through FAA.
Military – Without charting restrictions. Identified by abbreviations AFB, NAS, AAF.
Private “(Pvt)’ – Non-public use, having emergency use or landmark value.
Heliport - Selected.
Unverified – Emergency use only.
Abandoned - Paved, having landmark value.
Seaplane Base – SPB
Airports with paved runways at least 1500 feet long are shown by pattern. All recognizable runways, including those closed are shown for visual identification.
Airports with services.
Fuel available and field tended normal working times.
Non-hard surfaced runways – turf, gravel, asphalt-treated, etc.
Hard-surfaced runways – concrete/asphalt.
Rotating light in operation Sunset to Sunrise.
Airports with emergency or no services.

21. Air Navigation Charts Airport Data Airport Data
FSS – Flight Service Station.
CT – Control Tower (CT) – primary frequency. A “star” indicates operation part time. See tower frequencies tabulation for hours of operation.
Automatic Terminal Information Service.
UNICOM – Licensed aeronautical advisory station.
VFR Advsy – VFR Advisory Service shown where ATIS not available and frequency is other than primary CT frequency.
03 - Elevation in feet.
L - Lighting in operation Sunset to Sunrise. *L-Lighting available Sunset to Sunrise only on request (by radio call, letter, phone, telegram). (L)-Lighting in operation part of the night and on request, or not operating thereafter. L Pilot-controlled lighting (PCL).
92 - Length of longest runway in hundreds of feet.
S - Normally sheltered take-off area (SPB).
When facility or information is lacking, the respective character is replaced by a dash.
All times are local.
NFCT – Non Federal Control Tower.

22. Air Navigation Charts
Radio aids to navigation and communication boxes.
Radio aids to navigation and communication boxes.
VHF OMNI RANGE (VOR).
VORTAC
VOR-DME
Non-Directional Radiobeacon (RBn). Marine Radiobeacon.
Other facilities, i.e., Commercial Broadcast stations, FSS Outlets-RCO, LRCO, SFO, SSFO, etc.
Triangles in corners of box indicate Enroute Flight Advisory Service “(EFAS)” frequency 122.0;Voice Call, e.g.
Underlined indicates no voice on this frequency.
Heavy line box indicates Flight Service Station (FSS). Freqs 121.5, 122.2, 243.0, and are normally available at all FSS’s and are not shown above boxes. All other freqs are shown.
R – receive only. Square indicates Transcribed Weather Broadcast (TWEB) available at this NAVAID.
Frequencies above thin line box are remoted to NAVAID site. Other freqs at controlling FSS may be available determined by altitude and terrain.
In Canada a heavy line box indicates Aeradio. All available frequencies are shown. T – transmit only.

23. Air Navigation Charts Airport traffic service
and airspace information.
Airport traffic service and airspace information.
Airspace information. Only the controlled and reserved airspace effective below 18,000 ft. MSL are shown on this chart. All times are local.
Low Altitude Federal Airways are indicated by center line.
The limits of controlled airspace are shown by tint bands (Vignette) and are color-coded in blue and magenta. Floor 700 feet above surface. Floor 1200 feet above surface. Floors other than 700 feet or 1200 feet above surface.
TA – Transition Area. CZ – Control Zone. Prohibited, Restricted, Warning and Alert Area.
MOA – Military operations Area
CZ – extends upward from surface. CZ – Within which fixed-wing special VFR Flight is prohibited. Positive CZ (Canada)
Parachute Jumping Area
Intersection – Arrows are directed toward facilities that establish intersection.
Name
Visual Check Point
ADIZ – Air Defense Identification Zone FIR – Flight Information Region
Special Conservation Areas

24. Air Navigation Charts Airport Traffic Area Tower Controlled Airport.
Advisory Service Airport – Non-Tower Airports.
Obstructions
1000 ft and higher AGL. Below 1000 ft. AGL
Group Obstruction
Obstruction with hi-intensity lights
Elevation of the top above mean sea level
Height above ground
Under construction or reported: position and elevation unverified
CAUTION: Guy wires may extend outward from structures.
Miscellaneous
Mountain Pass Routes.
Isogonic line
Flashing Light
Marine Light
Light Ship
Glider Operating Area.

25. Air Navigation Charts Topographical Information
Roads
Road Markers
Bridges and Viaducts
Power Transmission Lines
Mines and Quarries
Lookout Tower
Coast Guard Station
Race Track
Tank - water, oil, or gas
Oil Well
Water Well
Aerial Cableway
Outdoor Theater
Rocks, Shipwreck, Pier
Perennial Lake
Non-Perennial Lake
Dams

26. Air Navigation Charts
Prohibited, Restricted, Warning, and Alert Areas.
Explains restrictions that apply in a particular area and who is responsible for the area.
Also an explanation of what is a prohibited, restricted, or alert area.
Identifies if you are permitted to fly into a prohibited area.
What the restrictions are for an alert area.
Who to contact if you wanted to fly through a particular area.
Prohibited, Restricted, Warning, and Alert Areas.
Explains restrictions that apply in a particular area and who is responsible for the area.
Also an explanation of what is a prohibited, restricted, or alert area.
Identifies if you are permitted to fly into a prohibited area.
What the restrictions are for an alert area.
Who to contact if you wanted to fly through a particular area.

27. Flight Planning Pilotage
The navigation of an aircraft using landmarks and maps, rather than an aircraft's own navigation systems.
In the United States, as long as the weather is good, it is possible to fly almost anywhere by pilotage.
Flight Planning
Pilotage
The navigation of an aircraft using landmarks and maps, rather than an aircraft's own navigation systems.
In the United States, as long as the weather is good, it is possible to fly almost anywhere by pilotage.

28. Flight Planning Airman’s Information Manual (AIM)
Check Chapter 4, Section 3 closely for information about the destination airfield.
Look for the NOTAMS, in Chapter 5 Section 1, to ensure that none of these affect your flight.
After selecting a chart and checking the AIM, check the weather reports, forecasts for enroute and destination weather, winds at altitude, and pilot weather reports (PIREPS).
Airman’s Information Manual (AIM)
Check Chapter 4, Section 3 closely for information about the destination airfield. You also need to find the telephone number of the nearest weather station.
Look for the NOTAMS, in Chapter 5 Section 1, to ensure that none of these affect your flight. On every flight, parts of the AIM should be checked, and the flyer should be familiar with all parts of it.
After selecting a chart and checking the AIM, check the weather reports, forecasts for enroute and destination weather, winds at altitude, and pilot weather reports (PIREPS).

29. Flight Planning Airman’s Information Manual (AIM)
Since navigation will be done by pilotage or landmark flying the pilot must maintain visual contact with the ground at all times.
This type of flying comes under visual flight rules (VFR).
For IFR flight, a flight plan must be filed with a FAA Flight Service Center (FSS).
For VFR flight, the FAA does not require a flight plan. However, military VFR requires a flight plan.
Since navigation will be done by pilotage or landmark flying the pilot must maintain visual contact with the ground at all times.
This type of flying comes under visual flight rules (VFR). If the flight was made in bad weather you would fly under instrument flight rules (IFR).
Whenever a pilot flies IFR a flight plan must be filed with a Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Flight Service Station (FSS).
An FSS is an air-ground voice communication station that relays clearances, request for clearances, and position reports between enroute aircraft and traffic control center.
In general, the FSS is a facility that aids the flyer during all phases of the flight.
For VFR flight a pilot is not required to file a flight plan, however, it is a good idea to do so anyway. With a filed flight plan, everyone knows your intentions, and if something happens, the proper agencies will have the information they need to initiate a search.
A great deal of work is associated with preplanning a flight, however, after a few flights you develop a routine.

30. FLIGHT PLAN

31. Pilotage Preflight Preflight – check the aircraft – plan the route.
Plan the route of flight in detail. This includes the four elements of navigation: position, direction, distance, and time.
Take an up-to-date chart and locate the departure and destination points (position).
With an Air Navigation Plotter, figure a True Course.
Pilotage Preflight
Plan the route of flight in detail. This includes the four elements of navigation: position, direction, distance, and time.
Take an up-to-date chart and locate the departure and destination points (position). After locating these two points, draw a line between them.
With an Air Navigation Plotter, figure a True Course. Subtract the local East magnetic variation and determine a Magnetic Course. Once this has been accomplished, draw an arrow on each side of the intended course with the Magnetic Course and mileage. This solves two elements of navigation: distance and direction.

32. Pilotage Preflight
To prepare the chart for easy reference and to figure distance, mark the line in 10-mile increments.
To solve the element of time, determine the cruising speed of the aircraft and divide the miles to be flown by the speed.
Determine if the chosen route is the safest.
To prepare the chart for easy reference and to figure distance, mark the line in 10-mile increments. This can be done by laying a piece of paper along the statute mile line of the graphic scale and marking 10-mile increments along the edge of the paper. Next, lay the paper along the route and transfer the 10-mile marks to it. This solves the distance element of navigation.
To solve the element of time, determine the cruising speed of the aircraft and divide the miles to be flown by the speed. If the plane cruises at 120 mph or 2 miles per minute and the straight line flight is 84 miles, divide 84 by 2 and the time for flight is 42 minutes.
Determine if the chosen route is the safest. Does the flight involve flying over high terrain or over wide bodies or water? Are there emergency airports that you can use in case of malfunction or a thunderstorm? Are there plenty of landmarks along the route?

33. Pilotage Preflight
As you plan your flight, be sure to include several linear features.
The FAA produces VFR Pilot Exam-O-Gram, which are brief and timely explanations of important aeronautical items.
Check the weather and annotate the Estimated Time Enroute on the flight plan.
As you plan your flight, be sure to include several linear features. Linear features are straight roads, railroad lines, power lines, etc., which can be easily followed. The best method is to find two linear landmarks that running in the same direction so that a crosscheck can be made. Distinct features crossing the route can help you to check time.
The FAA produces VFR Pilot Exam-O-Gram, which are brief and timely explanations of important aeronautical items.
Be sure to have up-to-date charts, including those adjacent to the one in use.
Everything that appears on the chart will usually be on the ground, but no standard chart is so detailed that everything you can see on the ground can also be found on the chart.
Check the weather and annotate the Estimated Time Enroute on the flight plan.
Earlier we estimated the flight time at approximately 42 minutes.
We actually need to add 2 or 3 minutes to allow for time to climb and reach the cruising speed.

34. The Flight
After takeoff, open your flight plan with the FSS and climb to your designated altitude.
As you fly at your designated altitude and course, crosscheck your position using predetermined landmarks.
The Flight
After takeoff, open your flight plan with the FSS and climb to your designated altitude.
As you fly at your designated altitude and course, crosscheck your position using predetermined landmarks.

35. The Flight
As you continue on the flight, continue to cross-check your position at predetermined interval until you reach the destination airport.
After landing, parking and going into operations, call the FSS and close the flight plan.
As you continue on the flight, continue to cross-check your position at predetermined interval (previously we plotted 10 mile increments in our pre-flight) until you reach the destination airport.
After landing, parking and going into operations, call the FSS and close the flight plan.

36. Lost!!!
The FAA gives some excellent advice on what to do when you find yourself unsure of where you are.
Don’t fight the problem; solve it.
Analyze and evaluate.
Fuel available and consumption rate
Weather
Equipment
Terrain
Daylight
The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) gives some excellent advice on what to do when you find yourself unsure of where you are.
Don’t fight the problem; solve it. Stay loose; don't hit the panic button. Panic virtually assures that all the thinking gears will grind to a halt.
Analyze and evaluate.
Fuel available and consumption rate. How much longer can you fly with the fuel you have? Be conservative, not hopelessly optimistic.
Weather - Is it good, bad, improving or deteriorating?
Equipment – Is everything functioning?
Terrain – Is it open land, flat country, mountains, marshes, semi-desert, or sparsely or thickly populated?
Daylight – How much do you have left?

37. Lost!!!
The following steps should be taken if fuel, daylight, weather, etc., is okay.
Keep going straight.
Use information about your last known position, elapsed time, approximate wind and ground speed.
Use this distance as a radius and draw a semicircle ahead of the last known position on the chart.
Start some first class pilotage.
Once you have assessed the situation, you can make a vital decision. One of the first things is to decide if help is available. The following steps should be taken if fuel, daylight, weather, etc., is okay.
Keep going straight. Establishing a course because you have a hunch is useless. Don’t wander aimlessly.
Use information about your last known position, elapsed time, approximate wind and ground speed to establish how far you have traveled since your last check point.
Use this distance as a radius and draw a semicircle ahead of the last known position on the chart.
Start some first class pilotage. Don’t overlook the possibility of being lost, yet right on course or very near so.
First, look for something big. Don’t concern yourself with the minute or trivial at this point unless nothing better is available. Often there will be linear features, such as rivers, mountain ranges, or prominent roads and railroads, which will be easy to spot and identify.
If you can’t find anything or if you still can’t find yourself, use anything that might help; don’t pass up anything. Don’t go down low and stay there. As a general rule, it is both safer and easier to fly at higher altitudes.

38. Lost!!! What should you do if you become lost and have other problems?
Get the aircraft on the ground. Most accidents are the product of mistakes that have multiplied over a period of time.
If terrain or other conditions make it impossible to get down at the moment, don’t waste time.
What should you do if you become lost and have other problems? Low on fuel, deteriorating weather, nightfall coming without experience in night flying, engine trouble or other mechanical malfunction.
Get the aircraft on the ground. Most accidents are the product of mistakes that have multiplied over a period of time.
If terrain or other conditions make it impossible to get down at the moment, don’t waste time. Don’t search for a field comparable to a major airport. Anything usable will do.

39. Lost!!!
The FAA also gives good advice when you’re lost and have other problems.
Never fly until the fuel is exhausted.
Never fly until the Sun slowly sets.
Never fly into bad weather.
The FAA also gives good advice when you’re lost and have other problems.
Never fly until the fuel is exhausted.
Never fly until the Sun slowly sets.
Never fly into bad weather.

40. Review Questions
CPS Questions
(9-10)

41. Summary 1. Map Elements 2. Air Navigation Charts 3. Flight Planning
4. Pilotage Preflight
5. The Flight
6. Lost!!!
In this lesson we have discussed:
1. Map Elements
2. Air Navigation Charts
3. Flight Planning
4. Pilotage Preflight
5. The Flight
6. Lost!!!