1. The Endocrine System

2. Feedback Mechanisms and Operation of Hormones
Hormones regulate endocrine function on the basis of feedback mechanisms.
There are two types of feedback mechanisms.
Negative feedback Mechanism/loop
A mechanism that works to “reverse” or “decrease” changes in the body.
E.g Furnace
Ex: Hypothalamus – Pituitary Feedback Mechanism
Operation of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary Feedback mechanism

3. Operation of the Hypothalamus-Pituitary Feedback mechanism

4. Feedback Mechanisms and Operation of Hormones
2. Positive Feedback Mechanism
A mechanism that serves to “increase” the effect of an action.
E.g: behaving is positive ways will lead to more positive behaviours

5. Ex: Oxytocin Feedback loop.

6. Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones

7. Anterior Pituitary Gland Hormones

8. Posterior Pituitary Hormones
Stores hormones, but does not create any.
ADH and Oxytocin are created by the HYPOTHALAMUS and STORED in the posterior pituitary.

10. Problems associated with the Pituitary Gland
a. Dwarfism
Cause: Insufficient production of HGH during childhood.
Effect: Causes an abnormally short stature.
Treatment: Injections of HGH

11. Problems associated with the Pituitary Gland
b. Giantism
Cause: Excess production of HGH prior to puberty.
Effect: abnormal growth of long bones in the skeleton.
Treatment: microsurgery of pituitary , radiation treatment of gland tissue.

12. Problems associated with the Pituitary Gland
c. Acromegaly
Cause: Excess HGH production during adult years.
Effect: Causes thickening of bone tissue. Causes abnormal growth of head, hands and feet. Also causes spinal deformities.
Treatment: Surgical removal of tumor causing too much HGH to be released.
Radiation of tumor
Injection of HGH blocking drug.

13. Problems associated with the Pituitary Gland
d. Diabetes Insipidus
Cause: Insufficient production of ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone).
Effect: increased thirst and dehydration
Production of high amounts of dilute urine
Enlarged urinary bladder.
Treatment: Injections of ADH to reverse effects.

14. Thyroid Gland Hormones
Function of Thyroxine
Thyroxine increases metabolism rate and oxygen consumption.
Thyroxine is released from the thyroid gland when stimulated by TSH from the pituitary.
TSH > Thyroid Gland > releases Thyroxine
TSH and Thyroxine work on a negative feedback loop.
Iodine is needed in diet in order to produce Thyroxine.
Function of Calcitonin
Moves calcium from the blood and into the bones. This lowers amount of calcium in the blood

15. Problems associated with Thyroid Gland A. Hyposecretion of Thyroxine
1. Myxedema
Condition where adults become obese, lose appetite and are often tired because of under production of thyroxine.
Treatment: drugs that have Thyroxine in them

16. Problems associated with Thyroid Gland A. Hyposecretion of Thyroxine
2. Congenital Hypothyroidism or Cretinism
Condition in children where they are often short/stalky and often mentally delayed.
Treatment: drugs having thyroxine

17. Problems associated with Thyroid Gland A. Hyposecretion of Thyroxine
3. Goiter
A condition caused by a lack of iodine in the diet.
This causes a decreased production of Thyroxine.
Patients end up with swollen thyroid gland. Looks like a large growth on the neck.
Treatment: increase iodine intake.
Governments have added iodine to salt for years (Iodized salt) to counteract this problem.

18. Problems associated with Thyroid Gland B. Hypersecretion of Thyroxine
i. Grave’s Disease
Condition where there is an increased metabolism (“hyperness”) in a person.
Increased sweating
Muscle weakness
Protruding eyes
Treatment: Surgical removal of thyroid gland
Thyroid blocking drugs.

19. Parathyroid Gland(s) Hormone
PTH (Parathyroid Hormone)
Causes bones to release calcium into the blood stream.
Causes kidneys to reabsorb calcium from blood thus increasing amount of calcium in the body.

20. Pineal Gland Melatonin
Causes a feeling of “sleepiness” and aids with sleep.

21. Thymus Gland
Thymosin
Causes the production and maturation of lymphocytes into T-cells. T-cells help the immune system fight infection.

22. Adrenal Glands Adrenal Cortex: Releases three major hormones.
Aldosterone: Regulates blood pressure and salt levels in the blood.
Cortisol: Reduces inflammation and causes glucose to be made by the liver.
Sex Hormones: Males hormones called “Androgens”
Females hormones called “Estrogens”
Adrenal Medulla: Releases two major hormones
Adrenaline (epinephrine) and Noradrenaline (norepiniphrine)
Released during times of stress. The “Fight or Flight” hormone.
Increases heart rate, respiration rate, release of glucose by liver etc.

23. Gonads: Ovaries and Testes Ovaries – found in females
Estrogen: controls secondary sex characteristics in females
Prepares the uterus for pregnancy
Progesterone: Maintains uterus during pregnancy
Testes – found in males
Testosterone: Controls secondary sex characteristics in males.
*Secondary sex characteristics are any of a number of manifestations, as development of breasts or beard, muscularity, distribution of fat tissue, and change of pitch in voice, specific to each sex and incipient at puberty but not essential to reproduction.

24. Pancreas (Islets of Langerhans)
Located near small intestine.
Helps regulate blood glucose levels.
Contain specialized endocrine cells called Islets of Langerhans
Which are made up of Alpha and Beta cells.
Secretes Insulin and Glucagons.

25. á cells cells i) secrete hormone called glucagon
ii) when blood-sugar levels drop, glucagon stimulates the release of glucose into the bloodstream (liver converts glycogen to glucose, adipose cells convert fat to glucose, muscles convert protein to glucose).
cells
i) secrete a hormone called insulin
ii) when blood-sugar level is too high, insulin stimulates the storage of sugar (liver stores glucose as glycogen, adipose cells store glucose as fat & muscles store glucose as proteins).

27. The Discovery of Insulin
two Canadian scientists: Fredrick Banting and Charles Best.
They worked with dogs and first discovered the link between the pancreas and diabetes in that dogs that had their pancreas removed developed symptoms of diabetes. In addition, they found the islet cells of the pancreas were responsible for preventing diabetes.
Later on, they did an experiment. They extracted the islet secretions from a healthy dog and put them in the system of a diabetic dog (removed pancreas). As expected, the diabetic dog’s blood sugar did go back to normal.
After several tests and modifications, this extract was given to a human patient with success. It was named insulin after the Latin word for island.

28. (1) Type 1 Diabetes (Diabetes Mellitus)
a disorder where blood sugar levels are elevated constantly. Can cause circulatory disorders, blindness, and/or weight loss
(1) Type 1 Diabetes (Diabetes Mellitus)
also called juvenile diabetes
insulin dependent (pancreas doesn’t make any insulin)
suggested to be an autoimmune disorder; body’s own cells attack the pancreas and destroy the cells which make insulin
(2) Type 2 Diabetes
adult-onset diabetes
insulin produced but body less sensitive to it or it is not produced enough
- 90% of all diabetics are type 2

29. Lab: p

30. Adrenal Gland and Stress
Cortex and Medulla do not interact, but they are both controlled by the hypothalamus.

31. Adrenal Gland and Stress
Adrenal cortex:
Cortisol: stimulates the synthesis of carbohydrates.
Aldosterone: regulates salt and water balance, which affects blood pressure. (osmoregulation)
Both hormones contribute to long term stimulation of immune system.

32. Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH): controls the production of cortisol and aldosterone.

33. Adrenal medulla:
Adrenaline: “stress hormone”
Noradrenaline:
Both increases heart rate, trigger the release of glucose, from energy stores, and increasing blood flow to skeletal muscles.
Adrenal medulla functions with the sympathetic nervous system via direct connection to the hypothalamus.
Adrenaline and noradrenaline may act as neurotransmitters.

36. What do you think?
“Should doctors prescribe HGH as a treatment for individuals who have normal levels of human growth hormone in their system, yet are genetically shorter than average, simply as a
means to increase their height?”
“Should steroids (performance enhancing drugs) be legalized for use by all athletes?”
“Should random drug testing of athletes be permitted or is it an invasion of privacy?”
“Should hormones be used within the beef industry to increase production?”