1. Ohm’s law CURRENT, POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE, AND RESISTANCE

2. Current  Current (I): rate (how fast) the electrons are moving past one point in a circuit  Measured in amperes (A)  1 Ampere = 6.2 X 10 18 electrons (called a Coulomb) per second.  Measured using an ammeter  Ammeters must be connected in series

3. Ammeters Black knob is the negative electrode Red knobs are the positive electrodes In this picture, there are 3 red knobs (50 mA; 500 mA; 5A) Read the scale that ends in 50 mA if you attach wire to 50 mA knob Read the scale that ends in 500 mA if you attach wire to 500 mA knob Read the scale that ends in 5 A if you attach wire to 5 A knob

4. Electric Shock and the Body  A current of 0.001 A will tingle  The let-go threshold is 0.050 – 0.150 A and your muscles contract (squeeze) and convulse (shake)  Above this level, you can no longer let-go of the object that is shocking you  Your heart can stop beating if it receives a shock of 1 – 4.3 A.  A wall outlet can deliver up to 15 A, which is more than enough to kill a person!

5. Potential Difference  Potential Difference (Voltage) (V ) : the difference in electrical potential energy per unit charge at two points in a circuit  Electrons have electric potential energy when they leave the negative end of the source but some of this energy is used up when the electrons power the load (e.g. make the light bulb shine)  Electrons return to the positive electrode of the source with less energy  Electrons re-energize (get more energy) inside the source

6. Potential Difference  Potential difference = difference in potential energy (J)  Charge (C)  1 J/C is called a volt (V)  Electric Potential Energy is measured in volts (V)  Measured using a voltmeter  Voltmeters must be connected in parallel  The negative side of the source needs to be connected to the negative side of the voltmeter  Voltmeters are read in the same way as ammeters

7. Resistance  Electrical Resistance (R): the ability of a material to oppose the flow of electric current in a circuit.  Measure resistance in ohms (Ω)  All materials have some resistance.  As the resistance increases, the current decreases and the temperature of the material increases  As electrons move through the material, they bump into the atoms of the material which converts some of the electrical energy into thermal energy

8. Factors That Effect Resistance  There are four major things that influence resistance  Type of material  Cross-sectional area  Length  Temperature

9. Factors that Effect Resistance  Type of Material  Conductors have a low electrical resistance (ex. Copper); insulators have a high electrical resistance

10. Factors that Effect Resistance  Cross-Sectional Area  The greater the diameter of a wire, the less resistance it has.  When the wire is thicker, there is more room for the electrons to move

11. Factors that Effect Resistance  Length  The longer the wire is, the more internal resistance it has because there is more wire for the electrons to travel through

12. Factors that Effect Resistance  Temperature  The warmer the temperature is, the more collisions the molecules make with the electrons. This increases the resistance.

13. Resistance  Measuring the Resistance  Measure with an ohmmeter  Ohmmeters must be connected in parallel with a load.  The ohmmeter is powered and provides an electric current through the load.

14. Resistors in Circuits  Resistor: Device that decreases the flow of electric current  many types of resistors  Variable resistor: can be used to increase/decrease volume, increase/decrease light intensity, etc.

15. Ohm’s Law  Ohm’s Law  V=IR  for most wires, the ratio of potential difference (V) to current (I) is a constant.  The constant is called resistance (R).  Measured in Ohms (Ω)  1 Ω = 1V/1A

16. Ohm’s Law  Sometimes, certain loads do not obey Ohm’s Law because the ratio of potential difference to current is not constant.  These types of materials are called non-Ohmic conductors.  Ex. an incandescent bulb (as the bulb gets warmer, the resistance increases)