1. The Female Reproductive System: Hormonal27
The Female Reproductive System: Hormonal

2. The mammary glands – pp. 1047 – 1048
Female Reproductive System – Hormonal Regulation & Aspects Related to Hormonal Control
The ovaries – pp104 – 1042
The endometrium – p. 1044
The mammary glands – pp – 1048
Physiology of the female reproductive system – pp – 1058

3. Female Reproductive System
Breast – mammary glands
Ovaries and follicle development

4. Mammary Glands
Modified sweat glands consisting of 15–25 lobes
Areola: pigmented skin surrounding the nipple
Suspensory ligaments: attach the breast to underlying muscle
Lobules within lobes contain glandular alveoli that produce milk

5. Mammary Glands
Milk  lactiferous ducts  lactiferous sinuses  open to the outside at the nipple

6. Pectoralis major muscle Suspensory ligament
First rib
Skin (cut)
Pectoralis major muscle
Suspensory ligament
Adipose tissue
Lobe
Areola
Nipple
Opening of
lactiferous duct
Lactiferous sinus
Lactiferous duct
Lobule containing
alveoli
Hypodermis
(superficial fascia)
Intercostal muscles
(a)
(b)
Figure 27.15

7. Breast Cancer: Detection and Treatment
70% of women with breast cancer have no known risk factors
Early detection via self-examination and mammography
Treatment depends upon the characteristics of the lesion:
Radiation, chemotherapy, and surgery followed by irradiation and chemotherapy

8. (a) Mammogram procedure
Malignancy
(b) Film of normal breast
(c) Film of breast with tumor
Figure 27.16

9. Usually arises from the epithelial cells of small ducts
Breast Cancer
Usually arises from the epithelial cells of small ducts
Risk factors include:
Early onset of menstruation and late menopause
No pregnancies or first pregnancy late in life
Family history of breast cancer
10% are due to hereditary defects, including mutations to the genes BRCA1 and BRCA2

10. Production of female gametes Begins in the fetal period
Oogenesis
Production of female gametes
Begins in the fetal period
Oogonia (2n ovarian stem cells) multiply by mitosis and store nutrients
Primary oocytes develop in primordial follicles
Primary oocytes begin meiosis but stall in prophase I

11. Ovaries (oogenesis) Follicle Immature egg (oocyte) surrounded by
Follicle cells (one cell layer thick)
Granulosa cells (when more than one layer is present)

12. Several stages of development
Follicles
Several stages of development
Primordial follicle: squamouslike follicle cells + oocyte
Primary follicle: cuboidal or columnar follicle cells + oocyte
Secondary follicle: two or more layers of granulosa cells + oocyte
Late secondary follicle: contains fluid-filled space between granulosa cells; coalesces to form a central antrum

13. Vesicular (Graafian) follicle
Ovaries
Vesicular (Graafian) follicle
Fluid-filled antrum forms; follicle bulges from ovary surface
Ovulation
Ejection of the oocyte from the ripening follicle
Corpus luteum develops from ruptured follicle after ovulation

14. Late secondary follicle Degenerating corpus luteum (corpus albicans)
Tunica
albuginea
Oocyte
Granulosa cells
Late secondary follicle
Degenerating corpus
luteum (corpus
albicans)
Cortex
Mesovarium and
blood vessels
Germinal
epithelium
Vesicular
(Graafian)
follicle
Primary
follicles
Antrum
Oocyte
Ovarian
ligament
Zona
pellucida
Theca
folliculi
Medulla
Ovulated
oocyte
Corpus luteum
Developing
corpus luteum
Corona
radiata
(a) Diagrammatic view of an ovary sectioned to reveal the follicles in its interior
Figure 27.11a

15. Each month after puberty, a few primary oocytes are activated
Oogenesis
Each month after puberty, a few primary oocytes are activated
One is selected each month to resume meiosis I
Result is two haploid cells
Secondary oocyte
First polar body

16. The secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase II and is ovulated
Oogenesis
The secondary oocyte arrests in metaphase II and is ovulated
If penetrated by sperm the second oocyte completes meiosis II, yielding
Ovum (the functional gamete)
Second polar body

17. Figure 27.17 Meiotic events Follicle development in ovary Before birth
Oogonium (stem cell)
Follicle cells
Mitosis
Oocyte
Primary oocyte
Primordial follicle
Growth
Infancy and
childhood
(ovary inactive)
Primary oocyte
(arrested in prophase I;
present at birth)
Primordial follicle
Each month from
puberty to
menopause
Primary follicle
Primary oocyte (still
arrested in prophase I)
Secondary follicle
Spindle
Vesicular (Graafian)
follicle
Meiosis I (completed
by one primary oocyte
each month in response
to LH surge)
Secondary oocyte
(arrested in
metaphase II)
First polar body
Ovulation
Meiosis II of polar
body (may or may
not occur)
Sperm
Ovulated secondary
oocyte
Meiosis II
completed
(only if
sperm
penetration
occurs)
In absence of
fertilization, ruptured
follicle becomes a
corpus luteum and
ultimately degenerates.
Polar bodies
(all polar bodies
degenerate)
Second
polar body
Ovum
Degenating
corpus luteum
Figure 27.17

18. Monthly series of events associated with the maturation of an egg
Ovarian Cycle
Monthly series of events associated with the maturation of an egg
Two consecutive phases (in a 28-day cycle)
Follicular phase: period of follicle growth (days 1–14)
Ovulation occurs midcycle
Luteal phase: period of corpus luteum activity (days 14–28)

19. Primordial follicle becomes primary follicle
Follicular Phase
Primordial follicle becomes primary follicle
The primordial follicle is activated
Squamouslike cells become cuboidal
Follicle enlarges to become a primary (1) follicle

20. Primordial follicles 1 Theca folliculi Primary oocyte Zona pellucida3 4 2
Primary oocyte 1
Zona pellucida
Antrum
Secondary
oocyte 5 1
Primordial
follicles 8 6
Secondary oocyte 7
Corona radiata
Figure (1 of 7)

21. Primary follicle 2 Theca folliculi Primary oocyte Zona pellucida3 4 2
Primary oocyte 1
Zona pellucida
Antrum
Secondary
oocyte 5
Primary
follicle 2 8 6
Secondary oocyte
Corona radiata 7
Figure (2 of 7)

22. Follicular Phase Primary follicle becomes a secondary follicle
Stratified epithelium (granulosa cells) forms around oocyte
Granulosa cells and oocyte guide one another’s development

23. Follicular Phase Secondary follicle becomes a late secondary follicle
Connective tissue (theca folliculi) and granulosa cells cooperate to produce estrogens
Zona pellucida forms around the oocyte
Fluid begins to accumulate

24. Secondary follicle 3 Theca folliculi Primary oocyte Zona pellucida4 2
Primary oocyte 1
Zona pellucida
Antrum
Secondary
oocyte 5 3
Secondary
follicle 8 6
Secondary oocyte 7
Corona radiata
Figure (3 of 7)

25. Theca folliculi Primary oocyte Zona pellucida Antrum Secondary oocyte3 4 2
Primary oocyte 1
Zona pellucida
Antrum
Secondary
oocyte 5 8 6
Secondary oocyte 4
Late secondary
follicle 7
Corona radiata
Figure (4 of 7)

26. Follicular Phase Late secondary follicle becomes a vesicular follicle
Antrum forms and expands to isolate the oocyte with its corona radiata on a stalk
Vesicular follicle bulges from the external surface of the ovary
The primary oocyte completes meiosis I

27. Ovulation
Ovary wall ruptures and expels the secondary oocyte with its corona radiata
Mittelschmerz: twinge of pain sometimes felt at ovulation
1–2% of ovulations release more than one secondary oocyte, which, if fertilized, results in fraternal twins

28. Theca folliculi Primary oocyte Zona pellucida Antrum Secondary oocyte3 4 2
Primary oocyte 1
Zona pellucida
Antrum
Secondary
oocyte
Mature vesicular
follicle carries out
meiosis I; ready to
be ovulated 5 5 8 6
Secondary oocyte
Corona radiata 7
Figure (5 of 7)

29. Follicle ruptures; secondary oocyte ovulated Theca folliculi3 4 2
Primary oocyte 1
Zona pellucida
Antrum
Secondary
oocyte 5 6
Follicle ruptures;
secondary oocyte
ovulated 8 6
Secondary oocyte 7
Corona radiata
Figure (6 of 7)

30. Luteal Phase
Ruptured follicle collapses
Granulosa cells and internal thecal cells form corpus luteum
Corpus luteum secretes progesterone and estrogen

31. Luteal Phase
If no pregnancy, the corpus luteum degenerates into a corpus albicans in 10 days
If pregnancy occurs, corpus luteum produces hormones until the placenta takes over at about 3 months

32. Corpus luteum (forms from ruptured follicle) Theca folliculi3 4 2
Primary oocyte 1
Zona pellucida
Antrum
Secondary
oocyte 5 7
Corpus luteum
(forms from
ruptured follicle) 8 6
Secondary oocyte 7
Corona radiata
Figure (7 of 7)

33. Establishing the Ovarian Cycle
During childhood, ovaries grow and secrete small amounts of estrogens that inhibit the hypothalamic release of GnRH
As puberty nears, GnRH is released; FSH and LH are released by the pituitary, and act on the ovaries
These events continue until an adult cyclic pattern is achieved and menarche occurs

34. Establishing the Ovarian Cycle
During childhood, until puberty
Ovaries secrete small amounts of estrogens
Estrogen inhibits release of GnRH

35. Establishing the Ovarian Cycle
At puberty
Leptin from adipose tissue decreases the estrogen inhibition
GnRH, FSH, and LH are released
In about four years, an adult cyclic pattern is achieved and menarche occurs

36. Hormonal Interactions During a 28-Day Ovarian Cycle
Day 1: GnRH  release of FSH and LH
FSH and LH  growth of several follicles, and estrogen release
 estrogen levels
Inhibit the release of FSH and LH
Stimulate synthesis and storage of FSH and LH
Enhance further estrogen output

37. Hormonal Interactions During a 28-Day Ovarian Cycle
Estrogen output by the vesicular follicle increases
High estrogen levels have a positive feedback effect on the pituitary at midcycle
Sudden LH surge at day 14

38. Hormonal Interactions During a 28-Day Ovarian Cycle
Effects of LH surge
Completion of meiosis I (secondary oocyte continues on to metaphase II)
Triggers ovulation
Transforms ruptured follicle into corpus luteum

39. Hormonal Interactions During a 28-Day Ovarian Cycle
Functions of corpus luteum
Produces inhibin, progesterone, and estrogen
These hormones inhibit FSH and LH release
Declining LH and FSH ends luteal activity and inhibits follicle development

40. Hormonal Interactions During a 28-Day Ovarian Cycle
Days 26–28: corpus luteum degenerates and ovarian hormone levels drop sharply
Ends the blockade of FSH and LH
The cycle starts anew

41. Early and midfollicular phases
Hypothalamus
Hypothalamus 5
GnRH
Positive
feedback exerted
by large in
estrogen
output. 4 8
Travels via
portal blood 1
Anterior pituitary 1 5
Progesterone
Estrogen
Inhibin
LH surge
FSH LH
Ruptured
follicle 6 2 2 8
Slightly
elevated
estrogen
and rising
inhibin
levels. 3 7
Thecal
cells
Granulosa
cells
Androgens
Corpus luteum
Mature follicle
Ovulated
secondary
oocyte
Convert
androgens to
estrogens
Inhibin 2
Late follicular and
luteal phases
Early and midfollicular phases
Figure 27.19

42. (a) Fluctuation of gonadotropin levels: FluctuatingLH
FSH
(a) Fluctuation of gonadotropin levels: Fluctuating
levels of pituitary gonadotropins (follicle-stimulating
hormone and luteinizing hormone) in the blood
regulate the events of the ovarian cycle.
Figure 27.20a

43. (b) Ovarian cycle: Structural changes in the ovarian
Primary
follicle
Vesicular
follicle
Corpus
luteum
Degenerating
corpus luteum
Secondary
follicle
Ovulation
Follicular
phase
Ovulation
(Day 14)
Luteal
phase
(b) Ovarian cycle: Structural changes in the ovarian
follicles during the ovarian cycle are correlated with
(d) changes in the endometrium of the uterus during
the uterine cycle.
Figure 27.20b

44. Uterine (Menstrual) Cycle
Cyclic changes in endometrium in response to ovarian hormones
Three phases
Days 1–5: menstrual phase
Days 6–14: proliferative (preovulatory) phase
Days 15–28: secretory (postovulatory) phase (constant 14-day length)

45. Uterine Cycle Menstrual phase
Ovarian hormones are at their lowest levels
Gonadotropins are beginning to rise
Stratum functionalis is shed and the menstrual flow occurs

46. Uterine Cycle Proliferative phase
Estrogen levels prompt generation of new functional layer and increased synthesis of progesterone receptors in endometrium
Glands enlarge and spiral arteries increase in number

47. Uterine Cycle Secretory phase Progesterone levels prompt
Further development of endometrium
Glandular secretion of glycogen
Formation of the cervical mucus plug

48. (c) Fluctuation of ovarian hormone levels:
Estrogens
Progesterone
(c) Fluctuation of ovarian hormone levels:
Fluctuating levels of ovarian hormones (estrogens
and progesterone) cause the endometrial changes
of the uterine cycle. The high estrogen levels are
also responsible for the LH/FSH surge in (a).
Figure 27.20c

49. Stratum functionalis (functional layer)
Endometrium
Stratum functionalis (functional layer)
Changes in response to ovarian hormone cycles
Is shed during menstruation
Stratum basalis (basal layer)
Forms new functionalis after menstruation
Unresponsive to ovarian hormones

50. Spiral (coiled) artery
Lumen of uterus
Epithelium
Capillaries
Uterine glands
Venous sinusoids
Lamina propria of
connective tissue
Spiral (coiled) artery
Straight artery
Endometrial vein
Smooth muscle fibers
Radial artery
Arcuate artery
Uterine artery
(b)
Figure 27.13b

51. Spiral (coiled) artery
Lumen of uterus
Epithelium
Capillaries
Uterine glands
Venous sinusoids
Lamina propria of
connective tissue
Spiral (coiled) artery
Straight artery
Endometrial vein
Smooth muscle fibers
Radial artery
Arcuate artery
Uterine artery
(b)
Figure 27.13b

52. (d) The three phases of the uterine cycle:
Endometrial
glands
Blood vessels
Menstrual
flow
Functional layer
Basal layer
Days
Menstrual
phase
Proliferative
phase
Secretory
phase
(d) The three phases of the uterine cycle:
• Menstrual: Shedding of the functional layer of the
endometrium.
• Proliferative: Rebuilding of the functional layer of
the endometrium.
• Secretory: Begins immediately after ovulation.
Enrichment of the blood supply and glandular secretion of
nutrients prepare the endometrium to receive an embryo.
Both the menstrual and proliferative phases occur before ovulation, and
together they correspond to the follicular phase of the ovarian cycle. The
secretory phase corresponds in time to the luteal phase of the ovarian cycle.
Figure 27.20d

53. If fertilization does not occur
Uterine Cycle
If fertilization does not occur
Corpus luteum degenerates
Progesterone levels fall
Spiral arteries kink and spasm
Endometrial cells begin to die
Spiral arteries constrict again, then relax and open wide
Rush of blood fragments weakened capillary beds and the functional layer sloughs

54. Effects of Estrogens
Promote oogenesis and follicle growth in the ovary
Exert anabolic effects on the female reproductive tract
Support the rapid but short-lived growth spurt at puberty

55. Induce secondary sex characteristics
Effects of Estrogens
Induce secondary sex characteristics
Growth of the breasts
Increased deposit of subcutaneous fat (hips and breasts)
Widening and lightening of the pelvis

56. Effects of Estrogens Metabolic effects
Maintain low total blood cholesterol and high HDL levels
Facilitates calcium uptake

57. Effects of Progesterone
Progesterone works with estrogen to establish and regulate the uterine cycle
Effects of placental progesterone during pregnancy
Inhibits uterine motility
Helps prepare the breasts for lactation