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2. Capital Structure Capital Structure Criteria Financial Leverage The Magic of Financial Leverage M+M Propositions Selecting a Capital Structure Benefit of Debt Cost of Debt – Financial Distress Optimal Capital Structure

3. Structure that minimizes overall cost of financing –WACC –Structure that maximizes value of firm –Relevant Question: What is effect of change in financing mix on firm value? Is there an optimal capital structure? Capital Structure Criteria

4. Financial Leverage Definition: –Use of relatively cheap debt to increase expected ROE Measurement: –Debt Financing Ratio D/(D+E) –Long-Term Debt to Capitalization LTD/(LTD+E) Note: Market (not book) values of debt and equity correctly determine capital structure

5. The Magic of Leverage Effects of Financial Leverage: 1.Increases ROE for likely business result 2.Increases variability in ROE (financial risk) 3.Effect on firm value depends on whether r D and r E rise with leverage Source: Undetermined

6. Proposition 1 - In perfect capital markets No taxes No transactions costs Free information No other imperfections firm value is determined by left side of B.S. (asset structure), not by D/(D+E) Proposition 2 - Required rate of return on equity increases in proportion to D/(D+E) Implications 1. In PCM, there is no optimal capital structure 2. To find optimal capital structure, find imperfections M+M Propositions

7. M+M Propositions Math Proof

8. M+M Propositions Results:r E increases with leverage WACC is independent of leverage Firm value is unaffected by financial structure Source: Undetermined

9. r DADA rDrD rErE r A =WACC Selecting a Capital Structure Naïve View of Leverage and WACC Financing cost can be minimized (and firm value can be maximized) through full use of debt.

10. r DADA rDrD rErE Selecting a Capital Structure M+M View of Leverage and WACC rArA Risk free debtRisky debt Financing cost (and firm value) are unaffected by use of debt.

11. r DADA rDrD rErE WACC Selecting a Capital Structure Traditional View of Leverage and WACC Financing cost can be reduced (and firm value can be increased) through judicious use of debt.

12. Selecting a Capital Structure More debt - debt subsidies –Income tax deductibility of interest expense –Access to tax-exempt debt Less debt –More likely financial distress – higher business risk –More severe financial distress – fewer assets that can be monetized

13. Benefit of Debt Income Tax Deductibility of Interest Expense Lowers WACC because of lower net cost of debt (net interest rate on debt) to the borrower Lower financing cost increases firm value Source: Undetermined

14. Benefit of Debt Income Tax Deductibility of Interest Expense Creates Interest Tax Shield - Tax savings resulting from deductibility of interest payments Increases value of firm by Firm Value = Value of All Equity Firm + PV Tax Shield Implication: Firms with higher tax rates (and other debt subsidies) should use more debt Tax Shield = r D *mtr*D PV(TS) = (r D *mtr*D)/r D

15. Cost of Debt Financial Distress Definition –Bankruptcy –“Skating on thin Ice” - insufficient cash to meet short term obligations Payroll Debt service Causes –Business risk – in product (or factor) market where cash flows uncertain –Financial risk – high debt financing ratio (D/A)

16. Cost of Debt Financial Distress Costs –Distorted business decisions –Covenants imposed by lenders Control over additional indebtedness Maintenance of cash reserves Maintenance of asset value Control over business decisions –Higher interest rates Implications: –Firms with higher business risk should use less debt –Firms with lesser ability to monetize assets should use less debt

17. Optimal Capital Structure Debt Market Value of The Firm Value of unlevered firm PV of interest tax shields Costs of financial distress Value of levered firm Optimal amount of debt Maximum value of firm

18. Optimal Capital Structure Structure of Bond Yield Rates D A Bond Yield r

19. –HMOs and financing firms No assets No CBR Many taxable High business risk –Hospitals and nursing homes Some assets Some CBR Some taxable Low business risk Optimal Capital Structure Health Care Organizations

20. Optimal Capital Structure Hospitals

21. Why did they do that? Reduced subsidies for debt –Increasing net interest rates as Capital Cost- Based Reimbursement is eliminated Higher business risk –Lenders require higher interest rates

22. How did they do that? Investor-owneds have the advantage Sell stock Make higher profits NFPs suffer from lesser access to equity Demise of health care philanthropy Pressure on profits

23. IO Firms Adjust Leverage

24. IOs make more money

25. NFPs protect themselves (with cash, of course)

26. Credit Rating Criteria (Moody’s Investors Service, etc.) Strategy is paramount (tie to financial plan) Management (and governance): development of new skills and understanding over time (learning organization) Medical staff: strategies to link medical staff and patients to hospitals Services and service area: –Attractiveness of services array to purchasers –Low-cost alternatives

27. Credit Rating Criteria (cont.) Competition: –For physicians –Market share of clinical services (pick winners) –For covered lives Financial performance –Cash was king Focus on balance sheet Still important –Cash flow is now king Focus on operations (income statement) Revenue pressure from payers

28. The Keys to Good Credit Ratings (from interviews with CFOs)  Management of the balance sheet.  Management of the income statement. This is seen as increasingly difficult by several systems, because of market pressures.  Management of relations with the credit community. “We have a AA balance sheet, and a B income statement. So, we have a A- credit rating.”

29. Optimal Capital Structure Trade-off Theory - Capital structure is based on a trade-off between benefits (tax savings) and costs (distress) of debt. Pecking Order Theory - Firms have ordered preference for financing 1. internal sources (profits) 2. debt 3. external equity