1. Animal Reproduction

2. Egg (Ovum) + Sperm  Zygote
Types of Reproduction
Asexual
Sexual
Clone
Advantage: FAST, if env. is stable
Fission: parent separates into 2+ individuals of same size
Budding: outgrowths from parent (eg. cnidarians, tunicates)
Fragmentation: breaking of body into pieces, form into adults by regeneration (eg. sea stars, sponges, cnidarians)
Parthenogenesis: female produces eggs that develop w/o fertilization (eg. male bees – haploid)
Genetic diversity
Advantage: ability to change pop. when env. changes
Fusion of haploid gametes
Egg (Ovum) + Sperm  Zygote

3. Sexual Reproduction – Frogs (External fertilization)
Fission - Sea Anemone
Sexual Reproduction – Frogs
(External fertilization)

4. Fertilization Joining of egg & sperm external internal
usually aquatic animals
internal
usually land animals

5. Development External Internal development in eggs
fish & amphibians in water
soft eggs = exchange across membrane
birds & reptiles on land
hard-shell amniotic eggs
structures for exchange of food, O2 & waste
sharks & some snakes
live births from eggs
Internal
placenta
exchange food & waste
live birth

6. Adaptive advantages?
What is the adaptive value of each type of sexual reproduction
number of eggs?
level of parental of care
habitat?

7. Reproductive Cycles and Patterns
Ovulation: release of mature eggs
Young produced when survival is most likely
Hormonal changes influenced by day length, season temp, rainfall or lunar cycles
Hermaphroditism: both M/F systems
Sessile/burrowing animals - barnacles, parasites (tapeworms), earthworms
Sex reversal: sex change during its lifetime
Bluehead wrasse (reef fish)

8. Sex reversal in a sequential hermaphrodite
Sex reversal in a sequential hermaphrodite. Wrasses (reef fish) born female, but oldest, largest individuals complete their lives as males.
Parthenogenesis in female Blacktip Shark: egg fuses with a polar body

9. Fertilization = sperm + egg
External Fertilization
Internal Fertilization
Egg shed by female, fert. by male in water
Environmental cues / courtship behavior
Large # gametes  low survival
Eg. fish, amphibians
Sperm deposited in female reprod. tract
Cooperative behavior
Dry environment
Fewer gametes, fewer zygotes  greater survival
External Devel.
Tough eggshell
Eg. reptiles, birds, platypus
Internal Devel.
High parental care
Eg. placentals, sharks, some reptiles

10. Evolution of sexual reproduction
Least Complex
Most Complex
No gonads
Egg/sperm develop in undifferentiated cells
Released into coelom, shed into env.
Distinct gonads (organs that produce gametes)
Delivery systems

11. Human Reproductive System
MALE
FEMALE
Function
Produce & deliver sperm
produce eggs
development of baby
Main reproductive organs
Testes
(singular: testis)
Ovaries
Reproductive cells (Gametes)
Spermatogenesis  SPERM
Oogenesis  EGGS
Main hormone
Testosterone
Estrogens
Role of FSH (follicle-stimulating hormone)
Sperm formation
Egg development (in follicle)
Role of LH (luteinizing hormone)
Produce testosterone
Release of egg (ovulation)

12. Female Anatomy Ovaries – produce eggs, sex hormones
Follicles – contain oocyte (egg); release 1/month; produce estrogens
Ovulation – release of egg from follicle
Remaining follicle  corpus luteum (↑hormones)
egg  oviduct (fallopian tube)  uterus (baby)  cervix  vagina
Mammary glands – secrete milk through nipples in breast

13. Female Reproductive System

14. Male Anatomy Testes (inside scrotum) – produce sperm, sex hormones
Seminiferous tubules – make sperm
seminiferous tubules  epididymis  vas deferens  urethra (penis)
semen = alkaline fluid w/nutrients, enzymes
million sperm/ejaculation

15. Male Reproductive System

16. Meiosis
Spermatogenesis
Oogenesis
Sperm production
Stem cells  spermatids in seminiferous tubules
Mature & add tail in epidymis
4 motile sperm
Ova production
Before birth: oogonia  meiosis - STOP at Prophase I (primary oocytes)
Puberty: each month, egg in follicle  Meiosis I (secondary oocytes)  fertilization  Meiosis II
1 ovum + 3 polar bodies

19. Reproductive Hormones
LH & FSH
Testosterone
from testes
functions
sperm production
2° sexual characteristics
Estrogen
from ovaries
egg production
prepare uterus for fertilized egg
testes or ovaries

20. Sex Hormone Control in Males
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Testes
Body cells
GnRH
FSH & LH
testosterone

21. Menstrual Cycle Hypothalamus Pituitary Ovaries Body cells GnRHLH
Hypothalamus
Pituitary
Ovaries
Body cells
GnRH
FSH & LH
estrogen
FSH
egg development
ovulation = egg release
corpus luteum
estrogen
progesterone
Top AP Link—Ch 42-43: Events of the Ovarian and Uterine Cycles
Bottom AP Link—Ch 42-43: Menstrual Cycle Feedback
lining of uterus
days 7 14 21 28

22. Female Reproductive Cycle
Endocrine System Control
Feedback
Female Reproductive Cycle
egg matures &
is released (ovulation)
builds up uterus lining
estrogen
ovary
corpus luteum
progesterone
FSH & LH
fertilized egg (zygote)
maintains uterus lining
pituitary gland
AP Link—Ch 41: Pregnancy Test
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone 1 (GNRH1) is a peptide hormone responsible for the release of FSH and LH from the anterior pituitary. GNRH1 is synthesized and released by the hypothalamus. GNRH1 is considered a neurohormone, a hormone produced in a specific neural cell and released at its neural terminal. At the pituitary, GNRH1 stimulates the synthesis and secretion of the gonadotropins follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). These processes are controlled by the size and frequency of GNRH1 pulses, as well as by feedback from androgens and estrogens. Low frequency GNRH1 pulses lead to FSH release, whereas high frequency GNRH1 pulses stimulate LH release. There are differences in GNRH1 secretion between females and males. In males, GNRH1 is secreted in pulses at a constant frequency, but in females the frequency of the pulses varies during the menstrual cycle and there is a large surge of GNRH1 just before ovulation. GNRH1 secretion is pulsatile in all vertebrates, and is necessary for correct reproductive function. Thus, a single hormone, GNRH1, controls a complex process of follicular growth, ovulation, and corpus luteum maintenance in the female, and spermatogenesis in the male.
Human chorionic gonadotropin
Human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG) is a peptide hormone produced in pregnancy that is made by the embryo soon after conception and later by the syncytiotrophoblast (part of the placenta). Its role is to prevent the disintegration of the corpus luteum of the ovary and thereby maintain progesterone production that is critical for a pregnancy in humans. hCG may have additional functions; for instance, it is thought that hCG affects the immune tolerance of the pregnancy.
The rabbit test was an early pregnancy test developed in 1927 by Bernhard Zondek and Selmar Aschheim. The original test actually used mice. The test consisted of injecting the tested woman's urine into a female rabbit, then examining the rabbit's ovaries a few days later, which would change in response to a hormone only secreted by pregnant women. The hormone, human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), is produced during pregnancy and indicates the presence of a fertilized egg; it can be found in a pregnant woman's urine and blood. The rabbit test became a widely used bioassay (animal-based test) to test for pregnancy. The term "rabbit test" was first recorded in 1949 but became a common phrase in the English language. Xenopus frogs were also used in a similar "frog test".
Modern pregnancy tests still operate on the basis of testing for the presence of the hormone hCG. Due to medical advances, use of a live animal is no longer required.
It is a common misconception that the injected rabbit would die only if the woman was pregnant. This led to the phrase "the rabbit died" being used as a euphemism for a positive pregnancy test. In fact, all rabbits used for the test died, because they had to be surgically opened in order to examine the ovaries. While it was possible to do this without killing the rabbit, it was generally deemed not worth the trouble and expense.
hCG
yes
corpus luteum
pregnancy no
progesterone
GnRH
corpus luteum breaks down
progesterone drops
menstruation
maintains uterus lining
hypothalamus

23. Egg Maturation in Ovary
Corpus luteum
produces progesterone to maintain uterine lining
AP Link—Ch 42-43: Follicle/Oocyte Maturation

24. Fertilization

25. Fertilization Joining of sperm & egg sperm head enters egg
AP Link—Ch 42-43: Events of Fertilization

26. Fertilization causes changes…
yolk found at vegetal hemisphere
embryo at animal hemisphere (pigmented)
post fertilization, animal pole rotates to where sperm penetrates the egg—forming the gray cresent

27. …which sets up signal cascades to help set up the body plan.
AP Link—Ch 42-43: Embryonic Assymetry

28. Cleavage Repeated mitotic divisions of zygote
1st step to becoming multicellular
unequal divisions establishes body plan
different cells receive different portions of egg cytoplasm & therefore different regulatory signals

29. Cleavage zygote  morula  blastula establishes future development
blastocoel
blastomere
AP Movie—Ch 42-43: Sea Urchin Embryonic Development

30. AP Link—Ch 42-43: Embryonic Stem Cells
AP Movie—Ch 42-43: NOVA—Stem Cells

31. Blood Cell Production Stem cells pluripotent cells in bone marrow
produce all types of blood cells
cells differentiate in bone marrow & lymph tissue
Recently, researchers succeeded in isolating pluripotent stem cells and growing these cells in laboratory cultures. Purified pluripotent stem cells may soon provide an effective treatment for a number of human diseases, including leukemia. A person with leukemia has a cancerous line of the stem cells that produce leukocytes. The cancerous stem cells crowd out cells that make erythrocytes and produce an unusually high number of leukocytes, many of which are abnormal. One experimental treatment for leukemia involves removing pluripotent stem cells from a patient, destroying the bone marrow, and restocking it with noncancerous stem cells. As few as 30 of these cells can completely repopulate the bone marrow.

32. Gastrulation Establish 3 cell layers ectoderm mesoderm endoderm
outer layers
skin, nails, teeth, nerves
mesoderm
blood, bone & muscle
endoderm
inner lining
digestive system
ectoderm
mesoderm
AP Link—Ch 42-43: Gastrulation
endoderm

33. Hox Genes
found in animals to determine body plan!
Chapter 19!

34. Hox Genes
genes that control differentiation on anterior-posterior axis
hedgehog v. sonic hedgehog

35. Hox Genes 1980s | 1995 Eric Wieschaus
 for his discoveries concerning the genetic control of early embryonic development
Eric Wieschaus

36. Human Fetal Development
4 weeks
7 weeks

37. Sex Determination Zygote Sperm Develop in early embryo Y Testes OvumXY X
SRY
Seminiferous
tubules
Indifferent
gonads
Leydig cells X
No SRY
Ovaries
Ovum XX
(Follicles do not
develop until
third trimester) X
Sperm
Zygote

38. Human Fetal Development
10 weeks
chorionic villus sampling—as early as week 8

39. Human Fetal Development
amniocentesis: weeks 14-18
Human Fetal Development
12 weeks
20 weeks

40. Human Fetal Development
The fetus just spends much of the 2nd & 3rd trimesters just growing
…and doing various flip-turns & kicks inside amniotic fluid
Week 20

41. Human Fetal Development
24 weeks (6 months; 2nd trimester)
fetus is covered with fine, downy hair called lanugo. Its skin is protected by a waxy material called vernix

42. Human Fetal Development
30 weeks (7.5 months)

43. Getting crowded in there!!
32 weeks (8 months)
The fetus sleeps 90-95% of the day & sometimes experiences REM sleep, an indication of dreaming
AP Movie—Ch 42-43: Human Fetal Development

44. Hormone induction
Birth
positive feedback

45. Birth (36 weeks) Intestine Placenta Umbilical cord Wall of uterus
Bladder
Cervix
Vagina

46. The end of the journey!
Any Questions!