1. AP Psychology Ms. Simon September 17-24, 2009 Introduction to Research Methods

2. Hindsight Bias The tendency to believe, after learning an outcome, that one would have foreseen it

3. Scientific Theories Set of principles that organize and predict behaviors or events Link observed facts Imply hypotheses that offer testable predictions

4. Subfields of Psychology Basic Psychology- research Applied Psychology- research put into practice as therapist Psychiatry- a medical field- deals with mental disorders- prescribe medication

5. There are three main types of research methods in psychology: Descriptive Correlational Experimental

6. Descriptive Study : 1)Case Study- psychologists study one individual in great depth in hopes of revealing universal principles

7. Case Study Pros Detailed information Unusual Cases Inexpensive Few ethical considerations

8. The Problem with the Case Study : An individual may be atypical Cannot generalize results Difficult to Manipulate Variables Difficult to quantify data

9. Naturalistic Observation Observe subjects in natural habitats without interacting

10. Naturalistic Observation ProsCons RealisticNo manipulat- InexpensiveIon of variables Few ethical consideration Observer Bias

11. Survey Method Relies on questions answered by a group of people in interviews or questionnaires

12. Survey Method Experimenter must identify the population to study Random sampling picking members from a population randomly to ensure a representative sample

13. Survey Method ProsCons Can gather lots of data Honest answers? Few ethical considerations Need many participants Inexpensive Wording Effects

14. In a study by AMNH, 88% of all respondents said that they were interested in plants and trees, but only 39% said they were interested in botany. One out of five Americans (22 percent) doubted that the Holocaust had occurred. 12% said they weren’t sure

15. What to Watch for… Order of choices Is the time frame specified? How personal or direct is the wording? Is there a cultural bias?

16. Correlational Studies Correlational studies assess the association between two or more characteristics of interest without ascribing causes Is a correlational study an experiment?

17. Correlation coefficient Example: R= +.37

18. Correlational Studies

19. ProsCons InexpensiveConfounding variables Few ethical considerations Illusory correlation TimeDoes not ObjectiveI mply causation

20. Illusory Correlation When we believe there is a relationship between two things, we are likely to notice and recall instances that confirm our belief

21. What is the correlation? 1) good looks/popularity 2) self-esteem/depression 3) brain size/intelligence 4) money/happiness 5) Education/length of life

22. Correlation: determining causation There is a strong correlation between people who ate oatmeal for breakfast as a child and cancer versus people who ate Frosted Flakes for breakfast as a child

23. Friday’s Exam: What to Study About 40% Historical Approaches, 60% Research Methods Study mostly from Class Discussion! Format: Multiple Choice, One short AP exam style essay question, short answer and/or matching

24. Research Methods DescriptiveCorrelationalExperimental Explains behavior using natural observations assess the association between two or more characteristics of interest Researcher manipulates one variable and observes the effect on another variable 1) Case studies 2) Naturalistic 3) Surveys 1) Causation 2) Illusory correlation 3) Correlational Coefficient Experimental Design Confounding Variables, double- blind

25. Experimental Method Researcher manipulates one variable (independent variable) and observes the effect on another variable (dependent variable) Allows one to show a causal relationship

26. Q:How is the experimental group different from the control group? A:The experimental group receives or reacts to the independent variable and the control group does not receive the independent variable Q:Why is a control group needed? A:Provides baseline for comparison

27. Confounding variable : external differences between the experimental group and the control group other than those resulting from the independent variable

28. Confounding Variables 1) Placebo Effect experimental results caused by expectations alone

29. Confounding Variables Demand Characteristics- participants form an interpretation of the experiment's purpose and unconsciously change their behavior accordingly

30. How can we control for confounding variables?

31. How can we control for confounding variables? 1) Random Assignment method of assigning subjects to groups to minimize pre-existing differences between those groups This is an example of Between subjects design : Participants in the experimental and control group are different individuals

32. How can be control for confounding variables? 2) Within subjects design Technique where subjects serve as control and experimental group. 3) Twin Studies:

33. Confounding Variables Experimenter bias- researcher’s expectations about the outcome of a study influence the results Q: How can we eliminate experimenter bias?

34. How can we eliminate experimenter bias? 1.Multiple Experimenters 2. Double blind procedure- research design in which neither the experimenter or the participants know who is in the experimental versus control group

35. AP Psychology Ms. Simon September 24, 2009 Experimental Statistics

36. Do Now: From your reading: Why do we need operational definitions?

37. How do psychologists present data? Frequency Distributions

38. Statistics Statistical significance (p) is the likelihood that the observed difference between groups results from a real difference rather than chance alone What’s a good p value?

39. When is data statistically significant?

40. 1) Large difference between the two means ) Large difference between the two means

41. When is data statistically significant?

42. 2) Small standard deviations

43. But… what’s a standard deviation? A standard deviation is the degree by which a score varies from the mean You don’t need to know the equation!

45. When is data statistically significant?

46. 3) Large Sample Size

47. Mean, Median, Mode 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 10, 10, 11, 11, 11, 11, 12, 12, 13 What’s the mode? What’s the median?

48. Normal Distribution

49. Skewed Data

50. Homework: Activity: design an experiment to see if aggression is related to violent TV watching Be sure to address random selection, random assignment, experimental versus control group, confounding variables, and how you will minimize the effects of experimental and observer bias.