1. Any Questions from Last Class?

2. Chapter 3 Benefits, Costs, and Decisions COPYRIGHT © 2008 Thomson South-Western, a part of The Thomson Corporation. Thomson, the Star logo, and South-Western are trademarks used herein under license.

3. Chapter 3 – Take Aways Costs are associated with decisions, not activities. The opportunity cost of an alternative is the profit you give up to pursue it. In computing costs and benefits, consider all costs and benefits that vary with the consequences of a decision and only those costs and benefits that vary with the consequences of the decision. These are the relevant costs and benefits of a decision. Fixed costs do not vary with the amount of output. Variable costs change as output changes. Decisions that change output will change only variable costs.

4. Chapter 3 – Take Aways Accounting profit does not necessarily correspond to real or economic profit. The fixed-cost fallacy or sunk-cost fallacy means that you consider irrelevant costs. A common fixed-cost fallacy is to let overhead or depreciation costs influence short-run decisions. The hidden-cost fallacy occurs when you ignore relevant costs. A common hidden-cost fallacy is to ignore the opportunity cost of capital when making investment or shutdown decisions. EVA is a measure of financial performance that makes explicit the hidden cost of capital. Rewarding managers for increasing economic profit increases profitability, but evidence suggests that economic performance plans work no better than traditional incentive compensation schemes based on accounting measures.

5. Review of Chapter 2 Voluntary transactions create wealth Anything that impedes the movement of assets destroys wealth. The art of business consists of identifying assets in lower valued uses, and devising ways to profitably move them to higher valued uses. Companies create wealth

6. Introductory Anecdote: Cadbury (Bombay) Anecdote  1978 Cadbury offered Bombay apartments to managers  1991 Cadbury added low-interest housing loans  1997 adopted EVA ® Capital charge appeared on division income statement $600,000=(15%)$4,000,000 What happened? Discussion: diagnose problem Discussion: fix it

7. Background: Types of Costs Fixed costs do not vary with the amount of output Variable costs change as output changes Candy factory example  Factory is fixed cost  Employees and ingredients are variable costs Fixed or Variable?  Payments to your accountants to prepare your tax returns  Electricity to run the candy making machines  Fees to design the packaging of your candy bar  Costs of material for packaging

8. Total, Fixed, and Variable Costs

9. Background: Accounting vs. Economic Cost Typical income statement costs (explicit)  Costs paid to its suppliers for product ingredients  General operating expenses, like salaries to factory managers and marketing expenses  Depreciation expenses related to investments in buildings and equipment  Interest payments on borrowed funds What’s missing (implicit)?  Payments to other capital suppliers (stockholders)  Stockholders expect a certain return on their money (they could have invested elsewhere)  “Profit” should recognize whether firm is generating a return beyond shareholders expected return Economic profit recognizes these implicit costs; accounting profit does not

10. Accounting Costs

11. Opportunity Costs & Decisions Goal: make decisions that increase profit  If profit of an action is greater than alternative, pursue it. Definition: opportunity cost of an action is forgone profit of alternative.  Implies decision rule and vice-versa  Alternatives vary with decisions, as do costs Discussion: opportunity cost of capital  To Bombay division  To company   GOAL ALIGNMENT!!!

12. Relevant Costs and Benefits When making decisions, you should consider all costs and benefits that vary with the consequence of a decision and only costs and benefits that vary with the decision. These are the relevant costs and relevant benefits of a decision. You can only make two mistakes as you make decisions  You can consider irrelevant costs  You can ignore relevant ones

13. Fixed-Cost Fallacy Definition: consider irrelevant costs  Football game example – how does ticket price impact your decision to stay or leave at halftime?  Launching a new product  Discussion: does your company include “overhead” in transfer prices? Discussion: outsourcing agitator Diagnose problem  Decisions rights; evaluation metric; compensation scheme,  GOAL ALIGNMENT!!!

14. Hidden-Cost Fallacy Definition: ignore relevant costs  Example: another football game Discussion: should you fire an employee? (Rev=$2,500, wages=$1,900, rent=$800) Discussion: give example of the hidden-cost fallacy.

15. Hidden Cost of Capital Recall that accounting profit does not necessarily correspond to economic profit Example: Making the hidden cost of capital explicit Discussion:  EVA ® =net operating profit after taxes minus the cost of capital times the amount of capital utilized  Helps avoid committing the hidden cost fallacy Major benefit: if you cannot measure something, you cannot control it.  Those who control costs are held responsible for them.

16. Incentives and EVA ® Goal alignment: “By taking all capital costs into account, including the cost of equity, EVA shows the dollar amount of wealth a business has created or destroyed in each reporting period. … EVA is profit the way shareholders define it.” Discussion: can you make mistakes using EVA?  Hidden cost fallacy?  Fixed cost fallacy?

17. Does EVA ® work? Adopting companies of EPP’s (+ four years)  ROA from 3.5 to 4.7%  operating income/assets from 15.8 to 16.7% Indistinguishable from non-adopters  Bonuses increase 39.1% for EVA ® firms  But 37.4% for control group Interpretations  Selection bias? NO, cheaper to use existing plans  Goal alignment, YES. EVA ® is no better or worse  Rival EPP’s  Bonus plans  Discussion: WHY?

18. Alternate Intro Anecdote Coca-Cola in the 1980s had very little debt, preferring to raise equity capital from its stockholders Company had a diversified product line, including products like aquaculture and wine. These other businesses generated positive profits, earning a ten percent return on capital invested. The company, however, decided to sell off these “under-performing businesses” Why? At the time, soft drink division was earning 16 percent return on capital The “opportunity cost” of investing in aquaculture and wine is the foregone profit could have been earned by investing in soft drinks A dollar invested in aquaculture and wine is a dollar that can not be invested in soft drinks Divisions sold off and proceeds invested in core soft drink business