1. Solar Cooling Consider a refrigeration system with no moving parts. – Heat the coolant (say ammonia gas dissolved in water) and force it via a generator into an evaporator chamber where it expands into a gas and cools. Move it to a condenser and cool it back to a liquid and repeat the process. These systems actually have existed for a number of years, refrigerators in the 1950s were sold with this technology (gas powered and there was/is a danger of CO emissions). Energy to heat the coolant and drive it through the system comes from burning fuel or a solar cell to provide electricity to do the heating. – Need what is called a concentrating collector (lens or other system to concentrate more light on the solar cell). Ideally, you could do this with a flat plate collector system, though you do not obtain as much cooling. Devices are not widely used, due to the intermittency of sunlight

3. Other renewable energy sources Hydropower Wind energy Ocean Thermal Biomass Geothermal Tidal

4. Hydropower Well established electrical generation technology, about 100 years old Known for over 2000 years that the force of moving water on a water wheel could save human labor 13 th century-hammers in iron works in Europe were operated with waterwheels. 16 th century –primary source of industrial power in Europe In the US, mills were established at sites with reliable water flow and dams were constructed to regulate water flow. – Cave mill here in BG. Several hydro powered mills for corn, flour and sawing in the 19 th century existed on this site at different times. With the advent of electricity, water wheels were used to drive electricity generation. About 7% of US energy generation is from hydroelectric plants

5. The physics of Hydropower Gravitational potential energy in the water at a height h above the wheel is converted to kinetic energy of the wheel which drives a turbine and generates electricity. So each mass element of water, m, falls a distance h and attain a velocity v. So its initial potential energy is mgh, where g is the acceleration due to gravity (9.8m/s 2 ) and the kinetic energy is 1/2mv 2. This tells us the amount of potential energy available to be converted to kinetic energy is 9.8 joules per kilogram of water per meter of height above the wheel. h is often called the head. Efficiencies of 80-90% can be achieved. Power = (Height of Dam (distance the water falls)) x (River Flow) x (Efficiency) / 11.8 where the height is in feet, river flow is in cubic feet per second, efficiency is what you expect and 11.8 converts from feet and seconds to killowatts

6. Plant operation

7. Hydro Turbine

10. Net exploitable hydropower resources

11. Advantages No Pollution No waste heat High efficiency Plants have decades long lifetimes and low maintenance costs Good response to changing electricity demands Damming of rivers can serve other purposes: flood control, irrigation, drinking water supply

12. Limitations About 50% of the US capacity for Hydro is developed Limited lifetimes for certain reservoirs-as the fill with silt, they become less useful for water storage. But the dam must be maintained long term, if it fails, communities downstream are in danger from the tremendous volume of silt that would be released. Loss of free flowing streams due to damming and the loss of the lands flooded by damming a river-environmental impacts – Salmon population in the Nothwest has been impacted Flood risk due to dam failures – Currently hundreds thousands of people in danger if dam failures occur

13. Fish Ladders Solution to the salmon problem - have not been very effective

14. Wind power Not subject to day night cycles Direct result of solar heating of the Earth’s atmosphere Use of wind for energy first noticed by sailors - the old sailing ships could extract the equivalent of 10,000 hp from the wind! Windmills were prevalent in Europe in the 19 th century Several million were pumping water in the US in the early 1900s

15. WHAT YOU’RE PROBABLY THINKING OF….

16. Power in a windmill The power in the wind can be calculated by P/m 2 =6.1 X 10 -4 v 3 This gives the power in kilowatts per meter squared, where the cross sectional area is oriented perpendicular to the wind direction. This is the total power, of course not all of it can be extracted. According to Betz’s Law, developed in 1919 by German physicist Albert Betz, no turbine can capture more than 59.3 percent of the potential energy in wind. However, the total amount of economically extractable power available from the wind is considerably more than present human power use from all sources!

18. Extracting the energy: The turbine The world's first automatically operated wind turbine was built in Cleveland in 1888 by Charles F. Brush. It was 60 feet tall, weighed four tons and had 12kW turbine.

19. Turbine types: 2 types, based on the direction of the axis that the turbine rotates about. Horizontal axis wind turbines (HAWT) -the turbine rotates around an axis that is horizontal. Vertical Axis Wind Turbines (VAWT) –the turbine rotates around a vertical axis

20. HAWT Horizontal Axis Wind Turbines main rotor shaft and electrical generator are locate at at the top of a tower, and must be pointed into the wind. Small turbines are pointed by a simple wind vane, while large turbines generally use a wind sensor coupled with a servo motor. Most have a gearbox, which turns the slow rotation of the blades into a quicker rotation that is more suitable to drive an electrical generator.

22. HAWT the turbine is usually pointed upwind of the tower since it creates turbulence behind it. Turbine blades are made stiff to prevent the blades from being pushed into the tower by high winds. The blades are placed a considerable distance in front of the tower and are sometimes tilted up a small amount.

23. HAWT Advantages Variable blade pitch so the turbine collects the maximum amount of wind energy for the time of day and season. The tall tower base allows access to stronger wind in sites with wind shear. In some wind shear sites, every ten meters up, the wind speed can increase by 20% and the power output by 34%. High efficiency, since the blades always move perpendicularly to the wind, receiving power through the whole rotation.

24. HAWT Disadvantages The tall towers and blades up to 90 meters long are difficult to transport. Transportation can be 20% of equipment costs. Tall HAWTs are difficult to install, needing very tall and expensive cranes and skilled operators. Massive tower construction is required to support the heavy blades, gearbox, and generator. Reflections from tall HAWTs may affect side lobes of radar installations creating signal clutter, although filtering can suppress it. Their height makes them obtrusively visible across large areas, disrupting the appearance of the landscape and sometimes creating local opposition. Downwind variants suffer from fatigue and structural failure caused by turbulence when a blade passes through the tower's wind shadow (for this reason, the majority of HAWTs use an upwind design, with the rotor facing the wind in front of the tower). HAWTs require an additional yaw control mechanism to turn the blades toward the wind.

25. VAWT Vertical Axis Wind Turbines have the main rotor shaft arranged vertically. turbine does not need to be pointed into the wind to be effective. This is an advantage on sites where the wind direction is highly variable. VAWTs can utilize winds from varying directions.

26. Types of VAWT Darrieus wind turbine – "Eggbeater" turbines. They have good efficiency, but poor reliability. Also, they generally require some external power source, or an additional Savonius rotor, to start turning. Giromill – A subtype of Darrieus turbine with straight, as opposed to curved, blades. The cycloturbine variety has variable pitch and is self-starting. – more efficient operation in turbulent winds; and a lower blade speed ratio which lowers blade bending stresses. Straight, V, or curved blades may be used. Savonius wind turbine – These are drag-type devices with two (or more) scoops that are used in anemometers, Flettner vents (commonly seen on bus and van roofs), and in some high-reliability low-efficiency power turbines. They are always self-starting if there are at least three scoops. They sometimes have long helical scoops to give a smooth torque.

27. VAWT Advantages A massive tower structure is less frequently used, as VAWTs are more frequently mounted with the lower bearing mounted near the ground. A VAWT can be located nearer the ground, making it easier to maintain the moving parts. VAWTs have lower wind startup speeds than HAWTs. Typically, they start creating electricity at 6 m.p.h. (10 km/h). VAWTs may be built at locations where taller structures are prohibited. VAWTs situated close to the ground can take advantage of locations where mesas, hilltops, ridgelines, and passes funnel the wind and increase wind velocity. VAWTs may have a lower noise signature.

28. VAWT disadvantages Most VAWTs produce energy at only 50% of the efficiency of HAWTs A VAWT that uses guy-wires to hold it in place puts stress on the bottom bearing as all the weight of the rotor is on the bearing. Guy wires attached to the top bearing increase downward thrust in wind gusts. Solving this problem requires a superstructure to hold a top bearing in place to eliminate the downward thrusts of gust events in guy wired models. VAWTs' parts are located under the weight of the structure above it, which can make changing out parts nearly impossible without dismantling the structure if not designed properly. Because VAWTs are not commonly deployed due mainly to the serious disadvantages mentioned above, they appear novel to those not familiar with the wind industry. This has often made them the subject of wild claims and investment scams over the last 50 years.

29. Efficiencies based on blade type