1. 1 CHAPTER 13 The Spinal Cord & Spinal Nerves

2. 2 INTRODUCTION Mediate reactions to environmental changes. Process reflexes Site for integration of EPSPs and IPSPs that arise locally or are triggered by nerve impulses from periphery and brain Conduction pathway for sensory & motor nerve impulses

3. 3 I. SPINAL CORD ANATOMY Protective structures – vertebral column provides a bony covering of spinal cord vertebral foramen form vertebral cavity added protection from vertebral ligaments & CSF – meninges CT layers surrounding brain & spinal cord 3 layers –dura mater = outermost layer »epidural space –arachnoid mater = middle layer »subdural space contains ISF –pia mater = innermost layer »vascularized »subarachnoid space contains CSF –denticulate ligaments prevent displacement of cord

4. 4 Applications Subarachnoid space is between the arachnoid mater & pia mater and contains cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Inflammation of the meninges is known as meningitis. Removal of CSF from the subarachnoid space is called a spinal tap (lumbar puncture). –used to diagnose pathologies and to introduce antibiotics, contrast media, anesthetics, and chemotherapeutic drugs.

5. 5 I-B. Ext. Anat. of Spinal Cord Begins as a continuation of medulla oblongata and terminates at about L2 vertebra in an adult Spinal nerves –31 pair emerge @ regular intervals from vertebral cav. –roots = bundles of axons that connect nerves to cord posterior (dorsal) root contains only sensory neurons –sensory info from skin, muscles, organs to CNS – post. (dorsal) root ganglion = swelling of root that contains cell bodies of sensory neurons anterior (ventral) root contains axons of motor neurons –CNS to effector organs – no ventral ganglion

6. 6 I-C. Internal Anat. of Spinal Cord Gray matter surrounded by white matter Gray matter –cell bodies, unmyelinated axons and dendrites –central canal = center of gray matter filled with CSF extends entire length of spinal cord –nuclei = functional groups of neuronal cell bodies sensory motor –horns anterior gray horns contain somatic motor neurons posterior gray horns contain autonomic/somatic sensory neurons lateral gray horns contain autonomic motor neurons

7. 7 I-C. Internal Anat. of Spinal Cord White matter –bundles of myelinated axons of w/ common origin/destination  form tracts in CNS sensory (ascending) tracts carry sensory info to brain motor (descending) tracts carry impulses from brain to effector

8. 8 Sensory and Motor Tracts Figure 13.4 shows the principal sensory and motor tracts in the spinal cord. (detailed in Chapter 16) Sensory (ascending) tracts conduct nerve impulses toward the brain. –the lateral and anterior spinothalamic tracts and the posterior column tract. Motor (descending) tracts conduct impulses down the cord. –Direct pathways include lateral and anterior corticospinal and corticobulbar tracts. –Indirect pathways include rubrospinal, tectospinal, and vestibulospinal tracts.

9. 9 II. SPINAL NERVES Spinal nerves are part of the PNS!!! Connective tissue coverings – endo neurium covers individual axons (superficial to myelin sheath) – peri neurium surrounds groups of axons (fascicles) – epi neurium is outer covering of entire nerve –blood vessels associated w/ peri-/epineuria Distribution –branches arise just outside vertebral column posterior (dorsal) ramus anterior (ventral) ramus

10. 10 II. SPINAL NERVES Distribution –plexuses network of interlacing, adjacent axons do not directly connect to structures they innervate 5 plexuses –cervical: skin/muscles of head/neck/upper chest –brachial: shoulders/upper limbs –lumbar: lower limbs/abdominal wall –sacral: buttocks/perineum/lower limbs –coccygeal: small area of skin in coccygeal region –intercostal nerves T2-T12  rami do not form plexuses directly connected to structures they supply Dermatomes provide sensory input from regions of skin

11. 11 III. SPINAL CORD PHYSIOLOGY Sensory & motor tracts –naming of tracts indicates direction of information flow example = anterior spinothalamic tract impulses travel from spinal cord toward brain –two routes for sensory input from spinal cord to brain spinothalamic tracts posterior columns –sensory systems keep CNS apprised of Δ in environ. –motor pathways direct : info from cortex; results in controlled voluntary movements (corticospinal/corticobulbar) indirect : info from brain for autonomic movements –Fig 13.12 summarizes functions of cord & nerves

12. 12 III-B. Spinal Reflexes & Reflex Arcs Spinal cord = integrating center for spinal reflexes Terms –reflex =fast, automatic response occurring in response to particular stimulus –Reflexes may be spinal, cranial, somatic, or autonomic. –reflex arc = pathway followed by nerve impulses in generation of reflex sensory receptor produces graded potential in response to stimulus sensory neuron sends info to gray matter of cord integrating ctr = synapse btwn sensory/motor neurons motor neuron carries impulses from integrating ctr to effector organ effector = body part that responds to motor impulse –somatic effectors = skeletal muscles –autonomic effectors = visceral organs

13. 13 III-B. Spinal Reflexes & Reflex Arcs Somatic spinal reflexes (4) 1)Stretch reflex –causes contraction of skeletal muscle in response to stretching –prevents overstretch of muscle (feedback mechanism) –sensory receptors = muscle spindles –spindles detect Δ in length  sends info to CNS  if strong enough, motor neuron generates a.p.  results in ACh release  muscle contracts to prevent overstretch –antagonistic muscles relax (via inhibitory potentials) as part of reflex (reciprocal innervation) –brain sets overall level of muscle tone by adjusting sensitivity of spindles tone = degree of contraction present in resting muscle

14. 14 2)Tendon reflex –controls muscle tension by causing muscle relaxation when muscle force becomes too extreme –sensory receptors = Golgi tendon organs detect change in tension caused by stretch/contract. –activation of inhibitory interneuron results in release of inhibitory NT @ NMJ (hyperpolarization of postsynaptic neuron)  muscle relaxation results –in this case reciprocal innervation causes contraction of antagonist muscle III-B. Spinal Reflexes & Reflex Arcs

15. 15 3)Withdrawal (flexor) reflex –protective reflex that moves a limb to avoid pain –results in contraction of flexor muscles to move a limb to avoid injury or pain EX: stepping on tack, touching hot burner ACh release causes contraction of muscle to w/draw from stimulus 4)Crossed extensor reflex helps maintain balance during withdrawal reflex –causes synchronized extension of the joints of one limb and flexion of the joints in the opposite limb (Figure 13.9) EX: step on tack, one leg flexes, other leg extends to maintain balance ACh release @ NMJ results in contraction of extensors III-B. Spinal Reflexes & Reflex Arcs

16. 16 Clinically Useful Reflexes Presence or absence of certain reflexes is useful in diagnosing disorders/injuries in nervous tissue Patellar reflex: extension of knee results from tapping patellar ligament –blocked by damage to L2-L4 segment of spinal cord –absent in some cases of diabetes mellitus –exaggerated in certain brain injuries Achilles reflex: plantar flexion of foot in response to tapping of Achilles tendon –absence indicates damage to nerves supplying leg muscles –may be absent in diabetics, alcoholics & as result of subarachnoid hemorrhage –exaggerated reflex indicates spinal cord compression in cervical region or lesion in sacral region

17. 17 Clinically Useful Reflexes Babinski sign: pressure on sole of foot results in dorsiflexion of big toe and fanning of others –normal under age 1½  incomplete myelination –if present after age 1½  damage to corticospinal tract –(--) Babinski results in curling under of all toes Abdominal reflex: contraction of muscles in abdominal wall causes umbilicus to move in direction of stimulus –absence indicates lesions in corticospinal tract Pupillary light reflex (autonomic reflex) –pupils of both eyes ↓ in diameter when either eye is exposed to light –absence indicates brain damage or injury