1. Cultural patterns 1. Time I. Edward T. Hall 
4 distinguishing features (dimensions):
1. Time
Polychronous cultures
Monochronous cultures
- people do one thing after the other
- people do things simultaneously
- time is very important
- time schedules are not so important
 punctuality
 people are notoriously unpunctual
 making plans
 plans are flexible
 keeping to plans
- people are very important
 more time spent on maintaining
or building up relations with
family/friends/business partners
- job/work is very important
- more short-term relationships
- more life-long relationships
- Work time is clearly separable
from personal time
- Work time is not clearly separable
from personal time
© DS

2. 2. Context  characterizes the way in which information is transmitted
low context
high context
- a lot of information is embedded in the context
the majority of the information
is explicitly communicated
in the verbal message
 feelings, thoughts and information are
not explicitly expressed, but also through a variety
of contexts, such as voice tone, body language,
facial expressions, eye contact, speech patterns,
use of silence, past interactions, status, common
friends, etc. The message is more implicit.
the same message can be communicated
through a variety of nonverbal gestures such as
a smile, a sigh, a shrug, or a frown.
e.g. an apology must be clearly
articulated
- high context communication assumes a prior
relationship, i.e. we are members of a
common culture, company, family, or other group
 people care for good relationships
 conflicts must be resolved before work can progress
business relationships depend on trust and build slowly
- few rules are given and information is accessed
through informal networks
© DS

3. 3. Space
 refers to the distance people need for the protection of their privacy
If people come too close, they can offend other people's privacy
Cultures that need more (private) space
Cultures that need less (private) space
e.g. Germany (big 'bubble' needed)
e.g. Mediterranean countries (small 'bubble')
 people have distinctive places
which they call "mine" and
don't want them to be "disturbed"
 large rooms, few if any partitions
 managers mix with employees
 closed doors
 open doors
 private offices and partitions
 no problems with interruptions and disruption
 minimal interruptions and disruption
 private and "public" space not so
clearly distinct
 permission needed to enter
private space
 touching is more common,
e.g. greeting rituals
 no touching without agreement
© DS

4. 4. Information Cultures with slow flow of information
Cultures with fast flow of information
Information is planed carefully and
therefore flows slowly
polychronous, high context cultures
monochronous, low context cultures
© DS

5. 1. Power Distance Index (PDI)
II. Geert Hofstede 
5 distinguishing features (dimensions):
1. Power Distance Index (PDI)
extent to which inequalities of power and wealth are commonly accepted
Cultures with low PDI
Cultures with high PDI
- hierarchies are less strict
- strict hierarchies are accepted
and expected
- superiors are expected to socialise
with staff
- superiors don't mix/socialise
with staff
- employees expect to take part
in decision-making or to be asked
for their opinions
- employees expect directives and rules
- tendency to centralize decision-making
and responsibility
- tendency to delegate tasks
and responsibility
- ideal boss: kind/benevolent autocrat
- ideal boss: good democrat
- autocracy
- co-determination
high dependence of employees
on their superiors/ senior staff
- less difference in incomes
tax laws support equitable
distribution of income
- big difference in incomes are accepted
© DS

6. 2. Individuality Index (individuality versus collectivism - IDV)
 extent to which individual interests prevail over the interests of a group
Cultures with high IDV
Cultures with low IDV
- ties between individuals are loose
people from birth onwards are integrated
into strong, cohesive in-groups, which
throughout people’s lifetime continue to protect
them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty
- everyone is expected
to look after themselves
and their immediate family
- great emphasis on groups,
people think more in terms of "we"
- emphasis on individual goals,
which are more important than
the group ("Selbstverwirklichung")
- harmony and loyalty within a company/group
is very important and should always be
maintained, confrontation should be avoided
- "I" distinctive from other people
 China: - never disagree with
someone's opinion in public
- people emphasize
their success/achievements in job
or private wealth and aim to reach
more and/or a better job position
discussion in private atmosphere
to avoid "loss of face"
- saying "no" would also mean
to destroy the harmony in the group
- personal freedom is more important
than equality
other expressions must be used
The well-being of the company/groups/society is more important than individual freedom.
© DS

7. competitive conflict behaviour
3. Masculinity Index (masculinity versus femininity - MAS)
Cultures with high MAS
Cultures with low MAS
dominant values:
performance and success
dominant values:
quality of life and care for others
self-assertion/resolution
(Durchsetzungsvermögen)
willingness to adapt
(Anpassungsbereitschaft)
career/ambition
quality of life
performance
sensitivity/empathy
work is very important in life
work is necessary to make a living
competition and
competitive conflict behaviour
cooperation/compromising,
strive for consensus
analytical approach to
problem-solving
intuitive approach to
problem-solving
big and fast are beautiful
Small and slow are beautiful
© DS

8. 4. Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI)
extent to which people feel threatened by uncertain or unknown situations
Cultures with high UAI
Cultures with low UAI
(cultures which avoid uncertainty)
(cultures which accept uncertainty)
- desire for detailed rules and their control
- aversion to rules
- resistance against change/innovation
- open for new things and change
- people tend to worry about the future
- little worries about the future
- higher demand for details in contracts
- avoidance of too many rules and formalities
- expert and specialist knowledge are
accepted
- acceptance of generalist knowledge
and common sense
- formalization and standardization
- flexible organisation and work environment
© DS

9. 5. Long-Term Orientation versus Short-Term Orientation (LTO)
Cultures with high LTO
Cultures with low LTO
fostering of virtues oriented
toward sustainable future rewards:
fostering of virtues related to the
past and present:
 efforts should produce quick results
 perseverance
 change is welcome and
may happen rapidly
 thrift
 strong work ethic
 respect for traditions
 willingness to subordinate oneself
for a purpose
 social and status obligations
are important
 development is sometimes slow
 preservation of "face"
© DS

10. What are cultural standards (patterns) and what is their purpose?
- with variations they are valid for a majority of the members of a culture
they describe and explain how a cultural group perceives and evaluates things,
how they think and why they act in specific ways
- they regulate behaviour (how to act in certain situations and with other people)
- variations (individual and group specific) are tolerated within certain boundaries
- behaviours outside these boundaries are socially rejected and sanctioned
- people‘s own cultural standards are not perceived consciously any more after
their successful socialisation
makes understanding between cultures more difficult
own cultural standards become conscious if they are compared with other cultures‘
standards