1. General Psych 2 Prenatal Development – Mod. 7 Infancy and Childhood – Module 8 March 23, 2004 Class #15

2. Development of the Embryo and Fetus Conception is the moment at which the sperm penetrates the ovum Conception is the moment at which the sperm penetrates the ovum Once fertilized it is called a zygote, until it reaches the uterus 3-4 days later Once fertilized it is called a zygote, until it reaches the uterus 3-4 days later Most zygotes (fertilized eggs) do not survive past two weeks Most zygotes (fertilized eggs) do not survive past two weeks About ten days after conception, these cells attach to the mother’s uterine wall and will do so for approximately 37 weeks About ten days after conception, these cells attach to the mother’s uterine wall and will do so for approximately 37 weeks

3. Development of the Embryo and Fetus The zygote’s outer part attaches to the uterine wall forming the placenta The zygote’s outer part attaches to the uterine wall forming the placenta The inner cells are referred to as the embryo The inner cells are referred to as the embryo By nine weeks, the embryo clearly looks human and is now a fetus By nine weeks, the embryo clearly looks human and is now a fetus

4. Development of the Embryo and Fetus Obstetricians count "weeks of pregnancy" from the first day of a woman's last menstrual cycle because there is often no way to determine exactly when conception occurred Obstetricians count "weeks of pregnancy" from the first day of a woman's last menstrual cycle because there is often no way to determine exactly when conception occurred Embryologists, however, typically describe the developing embryo or fetus by the number of weeks since conception Embryologists, however, typically describe the developing embryo or fetus by the number of weeks since conception

5. Role of the Placenta The placenta carries nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the fetus and at the same time screens out many potentially harmful substances The placenta carries nourishment and oxygen from the mother to the fetus and at the same time screens out many potentially harmful substances –Unfortunately some get through…

6. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) FAS is a lifelong yet completely preventable set of physical, mental and neurobehavioral birth defects associated with alcohol consumption during pregnancy FAS is a lifelong yet completely preventable set of physical, mental and neurobehavioral birth defects associated with alcohol consumption during pregnancy –Alcohol enters the mother’s and the fetus’ bloodstream FAS is the leading known cause of mental retardation and birth defects FAS is the leading known cause of mental retardation and birth defects –Small disproportioned head and lifelong brain abnormalities

7. How does a mother’s drinking affect her unborn child? Facts: Facts: –Through the blood vessels in the placenta, the mother’s blood supplies the developing baby with nourishment and oxygen –If the mother drinks alcohol, the alcohol enters her blood stream and then, through the placenta, enters the blood supply of the growing baby  So, when a pregnant woman drinks alcohol, so does her baby –Alcohol is a teratogen, a substance known to be toxic to human development

8. Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) Prenatal alcohol exposure does not always result in FAS—although there is no known safe level of alcohol consumption during pregnancy Prenatal alcohol exposure does not always result in FAS—although there is no known safe level of alcohol consumption during pregnancy Most individuals affected by alcohol exposure before birth do not have the characteristic facial abnormalities and growth retardation identified with FAS, yet they have brain and other impairments that are just as significant Most individuals affected by alcohol exposure before birth do not have the characteristic facial abnormalities and growth retardation identified with FAS, yet they have brain and other impairments that are just as significant

9. Sad facts… In addition to mental retardation, individuals with FAS may have other neurological deficits such as poor motor skills and hand-eye coordination In addition to mental retardation, individuals with FAS may have other neurological deficits such as poor motor skills and hand-eye coordination They may also have a complex pattern of behavioral and learning problems, including difficulties with memory, attention and judgment. They may also have a complex pattern of behavioral and learning problems, including difficulties with memory, attention and judgment. As many as 12,000 infants are born each year with FAS As many as 12,000 infants are born each year with FAS

10. What if I am pregnant and have been drinking? If you consumed alcohol before you knew you were pregnant, stop drinking now! If you consumed alcohol before you knew you were pregnant, stop drinking now! –Abstaining from alcohol for the remainder of your pregnancy can have a beneficial effect even on functions that might have been affected by earlier drinking –The sooner you stop drinking, the better the chance of having a healthy baby

11. Smoking cigarettes during pregnancy (US Dept. of Heath and Human Services, 2001) The rate of smoking during pregnancy dropped 33 percent between 1990 and 1999, so that in 1999 just over 12 percent of all women reported smoking during their pregnancies, according to a new report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention The rate of smoking during pregnancy dropped 33 percent between 1990 and 1999, so that in 1999 just over 12 percent of all women reported smoking during their pregnancies, according to a new report from the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention –The greatest success in reducing smoking was for women in their late twenties and early thirties, where there was over a 40 percent drop since 1990 –Teenagers were more likely than women of any other age to smoke while pregnant  After experiencing a dramatic 20-percent decline in the first part of the decade, smoking rates among pregnant teenagers–unlike women of all other ages--increased by 5 percent from 1994 to 1999  The highest rate in 1999 (19 percent) was for women 18-19 years of age

12. Smoking during pregnancy is related to violent crimes… Brennan, Grekin, & Mednick (1999) Brennan, Grekin, & Mednick (1999) –Subjects were a birth cohort of 4169 males born between September 1959 and December 1961 in Copenhagen, Denmark –During the third trimester of pregnancy, mothers self-reported the number of cigarettes smoked daily –When the male offspring were 34 years of age, their arrest histories were checked in the Danish National Criminal Register

13. Brennan, Grekin, & Mednick (1999) Found the following data relating smoking during pregnancy to offsprings’ arrest rate for violent crimes: Found the following data relating smoking during pregnancy to offsprings’ arrest rate for violent crimes: –Mother did not smoke…8% –Mother smoked 1-2 cigarettes per day…9% –Mother smoked 3-10 cigarettes per day…11% –Mother smoked 10-20 cigarettes per day…15% –Mother smoked > 20 cigarettes/day…18% What do you think of these numbers??? What do you think of these numbers???

14. Specific Teratogens No way to predict risk on an individual basis No way to predict risk on an individual basis Research has shown possible effects of most common and damaging teratogens Research has shown possible effects of most common and damaging teratogens –AIDS and alcohol extremely damaging –pregnant women with AIDS transmit it to their newborns –high doses of alcohol cause FAS –alcohol + drug use increase risk to developing organism

15. The Competent Newborn Babies come equipped with several reflexes suited for survival… Babies come equipped with several reflexes suited for survival… –The rooting reflex  Babies open their mouths and root for a nipple when someone touches their cheeks

16. Habituation This term refers to an infants decreased responding with repeated stimulation This term refers to an infants decreased responding with repeated stimulation –New stimuli get attention when first presented but the initial attraction wears off in time –Response is weakened with familiarity  Boredom?

17. Vision Capabilities of the Newborn At birth, infant vision is limited by immaturities in both the eye and brain At birth, infant vision is limited by immaturities in both the eye and brain Newborns estimated to have 20:300 eyesight. Newborns estimated to have 20:300 eyesight. Infants look longest at what they see best: Infants look longest at what they see best: –Large patterns with the most elements –The most movement –The clearest contours –The greatest amount of contrast

18. Other Senses of the Newborn At 2-3 days, newborns can hear soft voices and notice differences between tones At 2-3 days, newborns can hear soft voices and notice differences between tones –Special attention paid to speech, especially baby talk Certain smells and tastes are liked better than others Certain smells and tastes are liked better than others –Within a few days, breast-fed babies prefer scent of own mother to that of another mother

19. Reflexes of the Newborn Babies show involuntary, unlearned reactions, or reflexes, in the first weeks and months after birth Babies show involuntary, unlearned reactions, or reflexes, in the first weeks and months after birth –Swift, automatic movements in response to external stimuli Examples of observed reflexes in infants: Examples of observed reflexes in infants: –Grasping reflex –Rooting reflex –Sucking reflex

20. Piaget’s Theory Child psychologist Jean Piaget (1896- 1980) described the mechanism by which the mind processes new information Child psychologist Jean Piaget (1896- 1980) described the mechanism by which the mind processes new information –He said that a person understands whatever information fits into their established view of the world –When information does not fit, the person must reexamine and adjust their thinking to accommodate the new information

21. Piaget’s Theory Building blocks of development: Building blocks of development: –Schemas  Mental images – how we organize past experiences into a framework for understanding future experiences  These are basic units of knowledge –Assimilation  Here children take in information about new objects by using existing schemas that fit the new objects –Accomodation  Here a child tries a familiar schema on a new object – realizes it cannot be made to fit the object and then changes the schema so that it will fit

22. Piaget’s Theory Piaget described four stages of cognitive development and relates them to a person's ability to understand and assimilate new information: Piaget described four stages of cognitive development and relates them to a person's ability to understand and assimilate new information: –Sensorimotor –Preoperational –Concrete –Formal Operations

23. Sensorimotor Birth to about age 2: Birth to about age 2: –During this stage, children learn about themselves and their environment through motor and reflex actions…  Thought derives from sensation and movement  The child learns that he/she is separate from his/her environment and that aspects of the environment -- their parents or favorite toy -- continue to exist even though they may be outside the reach of their senses (object permanence)  Teaching for a child in this stage should be geared to the sensorimotor system

24. Preoperational Begins about the time the child starts to talk to about age 6 or 7 Begins about the time the child starts to talk to about age 6 or 7 –Applying new knowledge of language, the child begins to use symbols to represent objects –Early in this stage the child also personifies objects –The child is now better able to think about things and events that aren't immediately present –Oriented to the present, the child has difficulty conceptualizing time –Thinking is influenced by fantasy – the way they would like things to be – and they assume that others see situations from the same viewpoint –They take in information and then changes it in their mind to fit their ideas –Teaching must take into account the child's vivid fantasies and undeveloped sense of time

25. Preoperational They are egocentric…. They are egocentric…. –Can’t see things from another’s point of view yet…  They may stand in front of the TV blocking everyone else’s view Children do not yet have conservation… Children do not yet have conservation… –They do not yet understand logical mental operations…  See next three slides

26. Conservation of Liquid Saul Kassin, Psychology. Copyright © 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Reprinted by permission.

27. Conservation of Substance Saul Kassin, Psychology. Copyright © 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Reprinted by permission.

28. Conservation of Number Saul Kassin, Psychology. Copyright © 1995 by Houghton Mifflin Company. Reprinted by permission.

29. Concrete This stage begins about first grade and continues to early adolescence This stage begins about first grade and continues to early adolescence –During this stage, accommodation increases –The child develops an ability to think abstractly and to make rational judgments about concrete or observable phenomena, which in the past he/she needed to manipulate physically to understand

30. Formal Operations Adolescence Adolescence –This stage brings cognition to its final form –This person no longer requires concrete objects to make rational judgments –At his point, he or she is capable of hypothetical and deductive reasoning

31. Current Views It seems that Piaget may have underestimated young children’s competence… It seems that Piaget may have underestimated young children’s competence… –Infants are doing more than just sensing and moving as Piaget suggested  They are thinking as well –Infants develop some mental representations earlier than Piaget suggested

32. Current Views Changes from one stage to the next are less consistent and global than Piaget suggested Changes from one stage to the next are less consistent and global than Piaget suggested Children’s knowledge and mental strategies develop at different ages in different areas Children’s knowledge and mental strategies develop at different ages in different areas Cognitive development as changing frequencies in children’s use of different ways of thinking, not sudden, permanent shifts from one way of thinking to another Cognitive development as changing frequencies in children’s use of different ways of thinking, not sudden, permanent shifts from one way of thinking to another

33. Current Views In contrast to Piaget’s theory, some describe cognitive development in terms of gradual quantitative changes in children’s mental capacities… In contrast to Piaget’s theory, some describe cognitive development in terms of gradual quantitative changes in children’s mental capacities… –As children become older:  Their information-processing skills become better  They develop longer attention spans  Their memory storage capacity improves markedly

34. Vygotsky’s Views Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896- 1934) focused not on the physical world (as Piaget did) but rather on the social world of people Russian psychologist Lev Vygotsky (1896- 1934) focused not on the physical world (as Piaget did) but rather on the social world of people –He felt that the infant’s mind grows as a result of its interaction with other minds  It’s a product of cultural history The case study of the Wild Boy of Aveyron supports Vygotsky’s views The case study of the Wild Boy of Aveyron supports Vygotsky’s views

35. Wild Boy of Aveyron A wild boy captured in the woods near the village of Lacaune, France, in 1797 A wild boy captured in the woods near the village of Lacaune, France, in 1797 –The boy (approximately 11 years old) had apparently been lost or abandoned by his parents –He was taken by his captors (local peasants), kicking and struggling, to be displayed in the village square The wild boy managed to escape, but a year later (1798) he was caught by three hunters as he was climbing a tree The wild boy managed to escape, but a year later (1798) he was caught by three hunters as he was climbing a tree –He was then taken to a local widow's house, who fed and clothed him for a week –The boy again ran away to the forest But the wild boy was now less wary of human company, and started showing up hungry at farmhouse doors But the wild boy was now less wary of human company, and started showing up hungry at farmhouse doors

36. Wild Boy of Aveyron Eventually, in 1800 with winter at its worst, the hungry wild boy wandered near another village and was captured again, this time by a a local leather tanner Eventually, in 1800 with winter at its worst, the hungry wild boy wandered near another village and was captured again, this time by a a local leather tanner After that, Victor, as the boy came to be known, never returned to the wild After that, Victor, as the boy came to be known, never returned to the wild The boy was dirty and inarticulate, and he moved on all fours and grunted like a beast The boy was dirty and inarticulate, and he moved on all fours and grunted like a beast Brought to Paris the boy was examined and exhibited in a cage Brought to Paris the boy was examined and exhibited in a cage –Victor would rock back and forth and appear completely apathetic

37. Wild Boy of Aveyron Pioneer psychologist Philippe Pinel examined the boy and diagnosed him an incurable idiot, doubting the story of his wild origins. Pioneer psychologist Philippe Pinel examined the boy and diagnosed him an incurable idiot, doubting the story of his wild origins. Despite the grim prognosis, a young physician and teacher of deaf-mute and retarded children named Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard took charge of the boy's education Despite the grim prognosis, a young physician and teacher of deaf-mute and retarded children named Jean-Marc-Gaspard Itard took charge of the boy's education –Victor learned how to read, say a few words and to obey simple commands, but he never properly learned to speak He died in 1828 He died in 1828

38. Vygotsky’s Views The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition The major theme of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a fundamental role in the development of cognition Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level” Vygotsky (1978) states: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice: first, on the social level, and later, on the individual level” –First, between people (interpsychological) and then inside the child (intrapsychological)  This applies equally to voluntary attention, to logical memory, and to the formation of concepts All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals All the higher functions originate as actual relationships between individuals

39. Vygotsky’s Views: Zone of Proximal Development Another aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span which he calls the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD) Another aspect of Vygotsky's theory is the idea that the potential for cognitive development is limited to a certain time span which he calls the "zone of proximal development" (ZPD) –Full development during the ZPD depends upon full social interaction –The range of skill that can be developed with adult guidance or peer collaboration exceeds what can be attained alone

40. Vygotsky’s Views Two main principles: Two main principles: –Cognitive development is limited to a certain range at any given age –Full cognitive development requires social interaction

41. Attachment A deep, affectionate, close, and enduring relationship that an infant has to his or her caregivers during their first year of life is of utmost importance A deep, affectionate, close, and enduring relationship that an infant has to his or her caregivers during their first year of life is of utmost importance This is illustrated in Harry Harlow’s experiments with monkeys at the Primate Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin This is illustrated in Harry Harlow’s experiments with monkeys at the Primate Laboratory of the University of Wisconsin

42. Harlow (1959) In Harlow's initial experiments infant monkeys were separated from their mothers at six to twelve hours after birth and were raised instead with substitute or 'surrogate' mothers made either of heavy wire or of wood covered with soft terry cloth In Harlow's initial experiments infant monkeys were separated from their mothers at six to twelve hours after birth and were raised instead with substitute or 'surrogate' mothers made either of heavy wire or of wood covered with soft terry cloth –In one experiment both types of surrogates were present in the cage, but only one was equipped with a nipple from which the infant could nurse Some infants received nourishment from the wire mother, and others were fed from the cloth mother Some infants received nourishment from the wire mother, and others were fed from the cloth mother –Even when the wire mother was the only source of nourishment, the infant monkey spent a greater amount of time clinging to the cloth surrogate

43. Harlow’s Surrogate Mothers

44. Unfortunately… The actions of surrogate-raised monkeys became bizarre later in life… The actions of surrogate-raised monkeys became bizarre later in life… –They engaged in stereotyped behavior patterns such as clutching themselves and rocking constantly back and forth –They exhibited excessive and misdirected aggression

45. To make matters worse… Sex behavior was for all practical purposes destroyed… Sex behavior was for all practical purposes destroyed… –Sexual posturing was commonly stereotyped and infantile –Frequently when surrogate-raised female monkey was approached by a normal male monkey, she would sit unmoved, squatting upon the floor…  Harlow referred to this as a posture in which “only her heart was in the right place”

46. And worse… When a typical surrogate-raised male approached an in-estrus female he would clasp the head instead of the hind legs, and then engage in pelvic thrusts When a typical surrogate-raised male approached an in-estrus female he would clasp the head instead of the hind legs, and then engage in pelvic thrusts Other surrogate-raised males would grasp the female's body laterally, whereby all sexual efforts were futile Other surrogate-raised males would grasp the female's body laterally, whereby all sexual efforts were futile

47. And still worse… Later in life, the behavior of these monkeys as mothers themselves – the 'motherless mothers' as Harlow called them – proved to be very inadequate... Later in life, the behavior of these monkeys as mothers themselves – the 'motherless mothers' as Harlow called them – proved to be very inadequate... –These mothers tended to be either indifferent or abusive toward their babies –The indifferent mothers did not nurse, comfort, or protect their young, but they did not harm them –The abusive mothers violently bit or otherwise injured their infants, to the point that many of them died

48. Fortunately… Most infants do have a consistent caregiver… Most infants do have a consistent caregiver… –Usually this is the mother to whom they can form an attachment –By the age of six or seven months infants show signs of preferring their mother to anyone else  Once this attachment has been formed, even a 30 minute separation can be very stressful to the infant –Later on, infants develop attachments to their fathers as well

49. Variations in attachment The amount of closeness and contact the infant seeks with either parent depends on: The amount of closeness and contact the infant seeks with either parent depends on: –The infant  Those who are ill or tired may require more closeness –The parent  If a parent is absent or unresponsive then the infant is likely to need more contact when the parent is around

50. Secure Attachment Sroufe et al. (1983) Sroufe et al. (1983) –Studied securely attached infants (12-18 months of age) and then again when were 2- 3 years of age…  They found they were more outgoing, responsive, enthusiastic and persistent  Functioning much better than insecurely attached toddlers  The infant’s urge to be close to mother is balanced by urge to explore the environment

51. Types of Insecure Attachment Avoidant Avoidant –Infant tends to avoid or ignore mother when she approaches or returns after a brief separation Ambivalent Ambivalent –Infant is upset when mother leaves, but acts angry and rejects mother’s efforts at contact after a brief separation Disorganized Disorganized –Infant’s behavior is inconsistent, disturbed, and disturbing

52. Development of Motor Skills