1. Motivation

2. Motivation Motivation: What does it do for us?
Connects our observable behavior to internal states
Accounts for variations in behavior
Creates perseverance in the face of adversity

3. Motivation Three “Types” of Motives:
Primary Drives (Biological): Necessary for Survival
Hunger – Influenced by:
Brain (“Hunger/Satiety Center”), hormones
External controls
Social influences
Culture
Thirst – Influenced by:
Cells & Salt loss/Hypothalamus
External/environmental factors
Sex – Influenced by:
Hormones
Pheromones?
Experiences & learning
Culture
Balut: Boiled fertilized duck egg in the shell w/ nearly fully grown embryo
Casu Marza (Italy): cheese w/ live insect larva that can “jump” up to ½ foot

4. Motivation Three “Types” of Motives:
Stimulus Motives (Innate): Unlearned, Encourage “Exploration”
Exploration/curiosity: do organisms “need” stimulation?
Manipulation: may explain our need to touch everything!
Contact: Harlow’s monkey studies

5. Motivation Three “Types” of Motives: Learned (Social) Motives
Aggression: may be motivated by pain or frustration – cultural?
Achievement (need to excel): 3 types
Work orientation: do a good job
Mastery: improve abilities
Competitiveness: match skills w/ opponent
Affiliation: work for common cause (“belongingness”)
“Joiners” vs. “Loners”

6. Drive-Reduction Theory (1940’s-1950’s)
Behavior is motivated by biological needs
IOW: Our drive is to reduce our needs.
Need = requirement for survival
Drive = impulse to act in way that satisfies need
Primary Drives: biological needs (thirst, hunger)
Secondary Drives: learned drives (money)
Body seeks Homeostasis: Balanced internal state
Push-Pull factors
Nature (biological push) / nurture (psychological pull)
Create an example of Drive-Reduction theory.
Limitations of theory?

7. Motivation Motive: Needs, wants, desires
They can be biological, social, etc.
STIMULUS  MOTIVE  BEHAVIOR
So what motivates us? …. Instincts? (old idea)
…. Drives? (newer idea)
…. Incentives? (rewards)

8. Motivation The Theories (what is the stimulus?):
Evolutionary/Instinct Theories: Inborn behavioral patterns; unlearned, uniform, & universal fixed action patterns
Do humans have instincts?
The modern view?

9. Motivation The Theories (cont.):
Arousal Theories: “motivation” is to achieve/maintain some level of physiological arousal
Drive-Reduction Theory (“Push” theory): internal state of tension/arousal (the “drive” -- based on physiological need) that motivates (or “pushes”) the organism to reduce the tension, return to homeostasis (or physiological “balance”)
Drive-reducing
Behavior
(eating, drinking)
Need
(food, water)
Drive
(hunger, thirst)

10. Motivation The Theories (cont.):
Optimal Arousal Theory: some “ideal” level – if below optimal, motivation to increase, if above, motivation to decrease
Zuckerman’s “Sensation-Seeking” Scale…

11. Arousal Theory Arousal Theory
We seek optimum level of excitement / arousal
High optimum level of arousal = high excitement behaviors
Perform better at high level of arousal
Yerkes-Dodson law (1908): performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point.
Different tasks require different levels of arousal for optimal performance

12. Yerkes-Dodson Law: theory that says a degree. of
Yerkes-Dodson Law: theory that says a degree of psychological arousal (stress, anxiety, etc.) can actually improve performance, but only to a point; too much or too little arousal will decrease performance.

13. Motivation Extrinsic vs. Intrinsic Motivation
Extrinsic: Desire to perform behavior because of promise of reward or threat of punishment
Intrinsic: Desire to perform behavior for its own sake, for “internal” reward
Examples?

14. Motivation Extrinsic /Intrinsic: Which is better?
Intrinsic generally has the edge
Extrinsic still valuable, & the two often work together
Problems with extrinsic motivation:
Behaviors maintained by extrinsic alone may not last once motivation is gone
Will a student’s grades go down if parents stop giving them money for earning As & Bs?
Evidence suggests removal of extrinsic motivator results in lowered behavior levels
Overjustification Effect: if we give extrinsic rewards for things someone already loves to do, the intrinsic motivation may be replaced by the extrinsic motivation (athletes, musicians)

16. Motivation The Theories (cont.):
Incentive Theory (“Pull” theory): External goals motivate behavior
Modifed by the Expectancy-Value Model: motivation to pursue a given goal depends on your perceived likelihood of reaching the goal and the value of that goal
Competency Theory: We have the need to prove ourselves.
Incorporates the idea of Locus of Control: our belief that we control the outcome of our own lives (also comes into play in depression theories)

17. Motivation The Theories (cont.):
Humanistic Theory: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow (Humanist)
Needs motivate behavior
Natural hierarchy of human needs
“Lower” needs must be met before higher can be met
Criticisms?

18. Maslow’s Hierarchy
Maslow said that there is a natural hierarchy or rank to the needs humans have.
Before one of the higher needs can be fulfilled, the needs on the levels below must be met, at least to some degree.
Most needs are met at a rate of about 85% before a person can move onto a higher need.

19. Criticism of Maslow
Although critics will admit Maslow’s Hierarchy was the first real step toward a comprehensive theory of motivation, they say it isn’t complete.
People often neglect their basic biological needs for more social needs
Cross-cultural needs: individualistic vs. collectivist cultures see needs differently
Sensation seeking: Why would someone jump out of a plane for “fun?”
Other areas it doesn’t explain?

20. What is Emotion?
Emotion is a 4 part process consisting of physiological arousal, cognitive interpretation, subjective feelings, and behavioral expression.
While our emotions are very different, they all involve a state of mental and physical arousal focused on some event of importance.

21. Emotion Basics
Emotion and motivation are complimentary process. The concept of emotion emphasizes arousal, both physical and mental, while motivation emphasizes how this arousal becomes action.
Emotions help us respond to important situations and to convey our intentions to others.

22. Origins of Emotions
The biggest breakthrough in the study of emotions was the discovery of two distinct emotional pathways in the brain.
One of the pathways is fast, and operates mainly at an unconscious level where it screens incoming stimuli and helps us respond quickly to stimuli even before they reach consciousness.
These cues seem to have a built-in, innate sensitivity to certain cues-explains why we have more fears of spiders, heights and lightening than cars or electricity.

23. Origins of Emotion
The other pathway is much slower and linked to explicit memory. While it generates emotions more slowly, it delivers more complex information to our consciousness.
This system relies heavily on the cerebral cortex, which is why we can feel fear, despite knowing there is no real basis for that feeling.

24. Experienced Emotion
The ingredients of emotion

25. The Limbic System
While the two pathways differ, they do have some things in common. Both rely heavily on the limbic system.
The amygdala plays an especially important role in both emotion pathways. In the past it was thought that the amygdala was simply involved in negative emotions. Recently it has been discovered that it plays a role in positive emotions as well.

26. Expressed Emotion
People more speedily detect an angry face than a happy one (Ohman, 2001a)

27. Why We Have Emotions
Emotions are the result of genetics and learning, especially early in life.
Emotions serve as arousal states that help organisms cope with important recurring situations.
Learned emotional responses, along and genetics are both important components of many psychological disorders, including depression, anxiety disorders and phobias.

28. Universality of Emotions
Despite different languages, cultures and social norms, studies suggest that people “speak and understand substantially the same ‘facial language’ the world around.”
Essentially, people share a set of universal emotion expressions that give support to the idea of a biological heritage of the human species.

29. Seven Basic Emotions
Paul Ekman, a leading psychologist in emotions, suggests humans everywhere can recognize seven basic emotions: sadness, fear, anger, disgust, contempt, happiness and surprise.
Anger
Happiness
Disgust
Surprise
Sadness
Fear

30. Expressed Emotion
Culturally universal expressions

31. Experienced Emotion
Infants’ naturally occurring emotions

32. Display Rules
According to Ekman, the seven emotions are universal, but the display rules vary greatly, depending on the culture.
He defines display rules as the permissible ways of displaying emotions in a given society.

33. Anger

34. Contempt

35. Disgust

36. Fear

37. Happiness

38. Sadness

39. Surprise

40. Reading Emotion
In addition to being universal, the ability to read facial expressions is nearly ageless. Psychologists think that children as young as 5 years old have the same ability to recognize emotion on a person’s face as an adult does.

41. More Emotions
While we can recognize Ekman’s seven emotions, most of us can think of others like greed, envy, regret, optimism, etc.
Robert Plutchik suggests that rather than seven, we have eight primary emotions and eight secondary emotions. He depicts this in his “Emotion Wheel.”
More complex emotions occur when pairs of adjacent emotions combine.
Ex: love is a combination of joy and acceptance.

42. Emotion in Men and Women
In our culture, on average, women are viewed as far more emotional than men. This may be the result of two factors.
Biology, and the genetic make-up of men and women do lead to women “having more emotion.”
Higher levels of certain hormones
Culture, may be the bigger of the two causes. Boys and girls learn different lessons about emotion and emotional control. Boys are largely taught to hide emotions that may be seen as weaknesses and are praised for emotions that show strength and dominance. Girls are taught the exact opposite.
Display rules of emotion

43. Expressed Emotion Gender and expressiveness Number of expressions
Men
Women
Sad Happy Scary
Film Type 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2
Number of
expressions

44. Experienced Emotion Catharsis Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
emotional release
catharsis hypothesis
“releasing” aggressive energy (through action or fantasy) relieves aggressive urges
Feel-good, do-good phenomenon
people’s tendency to be helpful when already in a good mood

45. Subjective Well-Being
Experienced Emotion
Subjective Well-Being
self-perceived happiness or satisfaction with life
used along with measures of objective well-being
physical and economic indicators to evaluate people’s quality of life

46. Experienced Emotion
Moods across the day

47. Experienced Emotion Does money buy happiness? Average per-person
Year
100%
90%
80%
70%
60%
50%
40%
30%
20%
10% 0%
Average
per-person
after-tax income
in 1995 dollars
Percentage
describing
themselves as
very happy
$20,000
$19,000
$18,000
$17,000
$16,000
$15,000
$14,000
$13,000
$12,000
$11,000
$10,000
$9,000
$8,000
$7,000
$6,000
$5,000
$4,000
Percentage very happy
Personal income

48. Lateralization of Emotion
Different parts of our brain deal with different emotions. In the cerebral cortex, the right hemisphere generally specializes in negative emotions and the left hemisphere generally processes more positive and joyful emotions.
The idea that each hemisphere specializes in different classes of emotion has been called lateralization of emotion.

49. Psychological Theories of Emotion
There are multiple theories on how our emotions affect out behavior and mental processes.
James-Lang Theory: An emotion provoking stimulus a physical response, that then leads to emotion.
Emotion follows behavior
“We feel sorry because we cry; angry because we strike; afraid because we tremble.”-William James
Cannon-Bard Theory: A theory that an emotional feeling and an internal physiological response occur at the same time.
Emotion and behavior happen simultaneously

50. James-Lange Theory of Emotion
Experience of emotion is awareness of physiological responses to emotion-arousing stimuli
Fear
(emotion)
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)

51. Cannon-Bard Theory of Emotion
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
Fear
(emotion)
Emotion-arousing stimuli simultaneously trigger:
physiological responses
subjective experience of emotion

52. Psychological Theories of Emotion
Two-Factor Theory: This theory suggests that the emotions we feel depend on two things:
1) our internal physical state
2) the external situation we find ourselves in.
Attractive female researcher study (pg 308)

53. Schachter’s Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
Cognitive
label
“I’m afraid”
Fear
(emotion)
Sight of
oncoming
car
(perception of
stimulus)
Pounding
heart
(arousal)
To experience emotion one must:
be physically aroused
cognitively label the arousal

54. James-Lange theory Cannon-bard theory Two-factor theory
Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate
Stimulus: snake
Emotion fear
Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate
Emotion fear
Cannon-bard theory
Stimulus: snake
Cognitive interpretation “I feel afraid!”
Physiological arousal trembling increased heart rate
Two-factor theory
Emotion fear
Stimulus

55. Psychological Theories of Emotion
Cognitive Appraisal Theory: The thought that we look back on a situation and consciously decide how we should feel about the situation.
Ex. Grades, Papers, Projects, Tests
Opponent-Process Theory: Theory that we trigger one emotion by suppressing its opposite emotion.
Ex. Drugs-the highs experienced by some drugs are replaced with lows (withdrawals). Eventually people take drugs not for the highs, but to avoid the lows.

56. Yerkes-Dodson Law
Yerkes-Dodson law: A theory that a degree of psychological arousal helps performance, but only to a certain point. Too much or too little arousal can decrease performance. Also known as the Inverted U.