1. Self-Understanding: How We Come to Understand Ourselves
Chapter 5
Self-Understanding:
How We Come to Understand Ourselves

2. Chapter Outline
I. The Nature of the Self

3. The Nature of the Self
William James defined a basic duality of the self: it is both the known, “Me,” or self-concept (our knowledge of who we are), and the knower, “I,” or self-awareness (the act of thinking about ourselves).

4. The Nature of the Self
Tests of human infants suggest that self-recognition develops at about two years of age.

5. A baby getting to know himself

6. The Nature of the Self
Other developmental studies show that the concept of self evolves from being concrete and focused on observable characteristics to being more abstract and focused on psychological characteristics during the course of childhood and adolescence.

7. The Nature of the Self The Functions of the Self
Self-schemas are mental shortcuts that people use to organize knowledge about themselves and that influence what they notice, think about, and remember about themselves.

8. The Nature of the Self The Functions of the Self
Self-reference effects are the tendency for people to remember information better if they relate it to themselves.

9. The Nature of the Self
Cultural Differences in the Definition of the Self
In many Western cultures, people have an independent view of the self, while in many Asian and other non-Western cultures, people have an interdependent view of the self.

10. The Nature of the Self Gender Differences in the Definition of Self
There does appear to be a difference in the way women and men define themselves in the United States, with women having more of an interdependent sense of self than men.

11. The Nature of the Self
Despite cultural differences, people are similar in having some basic self-motives: self-assessment, self-verification, and self-enhancement.

12. Chapter Outline
II. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection

13. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Intuitively, we recognize that introspection, the process of looking inward and examining one’s own thoughts, feelings, and motives, is one basis of self-knowledge.

14. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory
According to self-awareness theory, when we do focus on ourselves, we compare our current behavior against internal standards and values.

15. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory

16. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory
When we become aware of a discrepancy, we attempt to reduce it by changing our behavior to match.

17. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory

18. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory
Baumeister (1991) has postulated that because self-awareness can be unpleasant, we will be motivated to “escape the self” by engaging in destructive practices or spiritual practices.

19. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Focusing on the Self: Self-Awareness Theory
Self-awareness will be pleasant when we meet or exceed our standards and the state can motivate us to do so.

20. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Know
Many of our mental processes occur outside of awareness -- we are aware of the final result of our thoughts, but not of the process by which we got there.

21. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Know
Introspection may not lead us to the true causes of our feelings and behavior, but we’ll manage to convince ourselves it did.

22. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
Judging Why We Feel the Way We Do: Telling More Than We Know
Diary (Günlük) studies have shown that although people have strong causal theories about factors that influence their moods, these theories are generally wrong.

23. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons
There may be a downside to introspecting about reasons when making decisions -- namely, we may come up with inaccurate reasons.

24. Knowing Ourselves Through Introspection
The Consequences of Introspecting About Reasons
We may convince ourselves that these incorrect reasons are correct, thereby changing our attitudes about how we feel to match our reasons -- an effect known as reasons-generated attitude change.

25. Chapter Outline
III. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior

26. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
According to Bem’s self-perception theory, we find out how we feel by observing what we do.

27. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
We are likely to infer our feelings from our behavior when our initial feelings are weak or unclear. And, we use our behavior to tell us about ourselves when we decide that we freely chose the behavior.

28. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
Intrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in an activity because we enjoy it or find it interesting; extrinsic motivation is the desire to engage in an activity because of external rewards or pressures.

31. Motivation to run a marathon
26.2 miles of the L.A. Marathon
A good chunk of them first-timers.
Without knowing quite what they were getting into, they've trained for weeks and pushed their bodies to the limit.
Their reasons are as varied as L.A.'s neighborhoods. Some have had the race on their bucket list; others will run in remembrance of a loved one, as a weight-loss regimen or to fulfill a bet.

32. Motivation to run a marathon
Does the inspiration matter? Yes. Good training is essential, helping runners get through fatigue, pain and bad weather. But when marathoners hit the wall and the finish line is still several miles away, they'll have to tap into something within themselves to keep going.
An estimated 10% to 15% of L.A. Marathon registrants never complete the race. This is where motivation comes into play.
Some motivation comes from within. Known as intrinsic, or internal, motivation, it's fueled by joy in the activity, like running, or in the sense of accomplishment that results. Extrinsic, or external, motivation comes from outside factors, such as wanting a medal or accolades from friends. For a marathon, put your money on the intrinsic kind, say sport psychologists.

33. Motivation to run a marathon
"If [running a marathon] is not intrinsically valuable — something that's a sense of pride and self-satisfaction — it's going to be very, very difficult to do what you have to do to get to the end,"
"If the bucket list is to impress other people and get their validation, then it's extrinsic," Dieffenbach says. "But if it's about you and accomplishing something in your life, then it's intrinsic.
Very few things are cut and dried, but at the end of the day, the majority of the day has to be intrinsic for something to be sustainable."    

34. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
When we are rewarded for engaging in an intrinsically motivating activity, we may underestimate the extent to which our behavior was caused by intrinsic motivation. This is known as the overjustification effect.

35. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
If initial interest in the task is low, as opposed to high; if the reward is performance-contingent (based on quality) rather than task-contingent (based simply on performance); and by reminding people that they can do tasks for intrinsic reasons even if they are also extrinsically rewarded for engaging in them.

36. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion
The two-factor theory of emotion states that emotion results from first perceiving physiological arousal and then finding an explanation or label for that arousal.

37. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
Understanding Our Emotions: The Two-Factor Theory of Emotion

38. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
Finding the Wrong Cause: Misattribution of Arousal
Studies have demonstrated that misattribution of arousal can occur. When this happens, we attribute our arousal to the wrong source and we experience mistaken or exaggerated emotions.

39. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
Interpreting the Social World: Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion.
Cognitive appraisal theories of emotion hold that emotions result from people’s interpretations of events, even in the absence of any physiological arousal. The appraisals of the implications of the event and of the cause of the event are especially important.

40. Knowing Ourselves Through Observations of Our Own Behavior
Interpreting the Social World: Cognitive Appraisal Theories of Emotion.

41. Chapter Outline
IV. Using Other People to Know Ourselves

42. Using Other People to Know Ourselves
What others tell us about ourselves is a very important source of self-knowledge.

43. Using Other People to Know Ourselves
According to social comparison theory, when our goal is to find out information about ourselves, we are likely to engage in upward social comparison; but when our goal is to feel good about ourselves, we are likely to engage in downward social comparison.

44. Using Other People to Know Ourselves
Seeing Ourselves through the Eyes of Others

45. Chapter Outline
V. Impression Management: All the World’s a Stage

46. Impression Management
Impression Management: All the World’s A Stage
Through self-presentation we attempt to present who we are, or who we want people to believe we are, to other people.

47. Impression Management
Impression Management: All the World’s A Stage
Impression management occurs when we consciously or unconsciously orchestrate a carefully designed presentation of self to fit a particular goal or need in a social interaction.

48. Impression Management
Impression Management: All the World’s A Stage
Ingratiation is the process whereby people flatter, praise, and try to make themselves likable to a person who has higher status.

49. Impression Management
Impression Management: All the World’s A Stage
Self-handicapping is creating obstacles for ourselves so that if we do poorly on a task, we can blame circumstances and not our abilities.