1. Motivation and Emotion

2. Motivation – a need or desire that energizes and directs behavior

3. 5 Theories of Motivation
Instinct Theory
Drive Theory
Incentive Theory
Arousal Theory
Humanistic Theory

4. Instinct Theory
Click on the fish to watch it’s instinctual behavior.
Instinct Theory – genetically predisposed (unlearned) behaviors that are common across a species
Only a few identified for humans
Only names behaviors doesn’t explain them
Example:
Salmon swimming upstream to lay eggs
Babies rooting and sucking reflex

5. Drive Reduction Theory
Drive Reduction Theory - physiological need creates a drive (state of tension) that motivates us to satisfy the need
Need - a physiological state that usually triggers motivational arousal
Example – lack of body fluids/need for water
Drive – An aroused or activated state that is often triggered by a physiological need
Example - Thirst
Key Ideas
ONLY explains behavior is motivated by BIOLOGICAL NEEDS.
Goal is Homeostasis - tendency to maintain a balanced internal state.

6. Primary versus Secondary drives
Primary drives – innate
Examples: thirst, hunger
Drive reduction theory only explains primary drives
Secondary drives – drives learned by conditioning
Example: Money, fear
Secondary Drives are explained by incentive theory

7. Incentive Theory
Incentives - positive or negative environmental stimulus that lure or repel us (similar to rewards and punishments)
Incentive theory acts when an external stimulus pulls you in a certain direction
Example – What motivates you to come to AP Psych class?
The grade?.
What motivates you to eat chocolate chip cookies?
The smell (incentive theory),
Drive theory acts by an internal state pushing you in a specific direction.
Example: What motivates you to eat a chocolate chip cookie?
Lack of food/need for food (drive theory)

8. Arousal Theory We are motivated to seek an optimum level of arousal.
Yerkes-Dodson Law – performance increases with physiological or mental arousal, but only up to a point. When levels of arousal become too high, performance decreases
Optimum level of performance occurs when stress is moderate
Example: You will perform better on your AP Psych test if there is a moderate level of stress and arousal…too much and you will not do well

9. Humanistic Theory of Motivation
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Abraham Maslow said we are motivated by needs, and all needs are not created equal.
Driven to satisfy the lower level needs first.
Example: Johnny acts out in class. He is motivated by his need to belong.
**Know the levels of the hierarchy

10. Motivation of HUNGER
Ancel Keys study on conscientious objectors

11. Keys Study
Fed 36 male volunteers just enough food to maintain initial weight, then cut food levels in half
Results
Men conserved energy
Dropped weight rapidly initially, but stabilized at 25% below starving weights
Psych effects – food obsessed, lost interest in sex and activities

12. Physiology of Hunger
Washburn’s studies showed hunger was partially related to the stomach.
But those with their stomachs removed still feel hunger.

13. Biological Basis of Hunger
Hunger does NOT come from our stomach.
It comes from our…
Brain
What part of the brain?
The Hypothalamus

14. Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Lateral Hypothalamus
Ventromedial Hypothalamus
Brings on hunger by triggering release of orexin (hunger arousing hormone)
When stimulated it makes you hungry.
When lesioned (destroyed) you will never be hungry again.
Depresses hunger
When stimulated you feel full.
When lesioned you will never feel full again and become …
Destruction of the ventromedial hypothalamus of a rat is most likely to become extremely fat
When a rat's blood sugar level decreases, the lateral hypothalamus releases the hunger-triggering hormone orexin.

15. How Hypothalamus works: Two Theories
Set Point
Set Point - point at which a person’s weight thermostat is set
Influenced by heredity
Hypothalamus acts like a thermostat to maintain a certain weight range. Goal = homeostasis
Lateral or ventromedial hypothalamus activated as needed
Overweight =
Underweight =
Examples:
After losing 30lbs, Susan began to put the weight back on
Leptin
Leptin- a protein produced by bloated fat cells.
Hypothalamus senses rises in leptin and will curb eating and increase activity.
ventromedial
lateral

16. Basil Metabolic Rate
BMR- minimum caloric requirement needed to sustain life in a resting individual
amount of energy (measured in calories) burned by the body if you remain in bed asleep all day!
Normal weight below set point, hunger increase and BMR will decrease
Energy expenditure decreases
Normal Weight above set point, hunger will decrease and BMR will increase
Energy expenditure increases

17. Body Chemistry and the Brain
Appetite hormones
Ghrelin – secreted by stomach hunger arousing hormone
Obestatin – secreted by stomach suppresses appetite
PYY – secreted by digestive tract: suppresses appetite
Leptin – protein secreted by fat cells that diminishes the rewarding pleasure of food
Ghrelin – hunger arousing hormone secreted by an empty stomach. Gastric bypass seals off part of the stomach so the stomach produces less ghrelin, lessening appetite
Obestatin sends out fullness signal that suppresses appetite
PPY – secreted by digestive tract decreases hunger
Leptin - secreted by fat cells – decreases the reward pleasure of food
The secretion of ghrelin stimulates appetite, and the secretion of obestatin suppresses
appetite.
Feelings of hunger are suppressed at least temporarily by the hormone PPY
Leptin, a hunger-dampening protein, is secreted by fat cells

18. Body Chemistry Glucose – form of sugar in blood
Low levels increase hunger
High levels decrease hunger
Insulin - hormone that converts glucose to fat.
When glucose levels drop- hunger increases.
Hyperglycemia (diabetes) – glucose too high, don’t produce insulin to convert glucose to fat
Hypoglycemia – glucose too low, need carbs

19. Psychology of Hunger

20. Psychology of Hunger Dog Mice Wine
Amnesia patients will eat 20 minutes after just eating a meal
TASTE
Carbs – boost serotonin = calming effect
Preference for sweet and salty tastes - universal and genetic
Highly salty – learned
Garcia Effect - aversion for foods that make us sick
Taste preferences are cultural and adaptive
Dog, rat meat, horse meat, camel eye, sparrow
Repeated exposure increases appreciation for new tastes
Neophobia – dislike for novel things is adaptive
Spices in hot climate
Nausea during pregnancy
Fried Frog Legs

21. Ecology of Eating
Social Facilitation – when we’re around others we eat more
Example: At a party we tend to eat more
Unit Bias – We eat more served in larger portion sizes
Supersized at MCDonalds

22. Although Jan appears to be underweight, she is afraid of becoming fat and consistently restricts her food intake. Although Gene appears to be overweight, he enjoys eating and always eats as much as he wants. Explain how their different reactions to food might result from (a) differences in their inner bodily states and (b) differences in their reactions to external incentives.

23. Eating Disorders Bulimia Nervosa
Characterized by binging (eating large amounts of food) and purging (getting rid of the food).
Higher than usual childhood obesity
Binge-eating disorder – spurts of excessive overeating followed by remorse (no purging)

24. Anorexia Nervosa
Starve themselves to below 85% of their normal body weight.
See themselves as fat.
Vast majority are woman, but not all
Families are high achieving and protective.
Live in cultures where thin bodies are idealized

25. Causes of Eating Disorders
Sex abuse – ruled out
Genetic – Identical twins share
Culture – idealizes thinness
Childhood obesity – bulimia
High achieving and protective families – anorexia
Gender differences

26. Obesity and Weight Control
Historical Reasons:
Fat helps body through periods when food is scarce
In developed nations old rule is dysfunctional
Obesity = BMI of 30+
Life expectancy

27. Obesity

28. Obesity

29. The Social Effects of Obesity
Weight discrimination
Psychological effects of obesity
25% increase in depression and anxiety

30. The Physiology of Obesity
Fat Cells
Typical adult 30-40B
Obese – 75B (swell to 2-3X normal size then divide)
Still have more but smaller fat cells and slower metabolic rates if lose weight

31. Genetics & Obesity Body weights resemble biological parents
Gene FTO identified doubles risk
Identical twins have similar weights
+.74 correlation
Obese parents = obese children
3X boy 6X girl

32. Environmental Factors & Obesity
Sleep loss
Levels of leptin fall, ghrelin and orexin rise
Social influence
Obese friends = obesity
Food consumption and activity level
TV viewing habits

33. Losing Weight Realistic and moderate goals
Minimize exposure to tempting foods
Don’t starve all day
Attitudinal changes

34. Sexual Motivation Interplay of internal and external Stimuli
Genes way of preserving and spreading themselves
2 important studies contributed to our knowledge of sexual motivation
Kinsey Studies
Masters and Johnson

35. Kinsey’s Studies
Confidential interviews with 18,000 people (in early 1950’s).
Sexual Behavior in the Human Male and Sexual Behavior in the Human Female
Scale of sexuality….0 to 6 where 0 is exclusively heterosexual and 6 homosexual and 7 is asexual.
Click on Kinsey to see the movie trailer.

36. Masters and Johnson Study
Click on Masters and Johnson to see a more detailed explanation of their research.
William Masters and Virginia Johnson (1960s) - explored the physiology of sex.
382 females and 312 males.
After their research was done they ran an institute that claimed to turn gay people straight.

37. Sexual Response Cycle 4 stages of sexual responding
Excitement Phase
Plateau Phase
Orgasm
Resolution Phase
Includes refractory period – man is incapable of another organsm

38. Hormones and Sexual Behavior
Effects of hormones
Development of sexual characteristics
Activate sexual behavior
Estrogen
Sex hormones secreted in greater amounts by females
female sex characteristics
Peaks during ovulation increasing receptivity- “in heat” (non-humans), in humans sexual desire rises slightly during ovulation
Testosterone
Sex hormones secreted in greater amounts by males
women more responsive to testosterone than non-human females
loss of ovaries = decrease in testosterone and sex drive
Male sex characteristics in fetus and puberty
Rises in men with social interaction
Castrated rats and men lose sexual desire

39. Psychological Factors in Sexual Motivation
External Stimuli
Erotic Materials
more active Amygdala in males
Women exhibit nearly as much arousal
More likely to hurt women if women depicted as enjoying
Devalue partners
Imagined stimuli
Dreams – Can contain sexual imagery
Sexual Fantasies
Both sexes, but men more often, more physically and less romantically

40. Levels of Analysis for Sexual Motivation

41. Teen Pregnancy Ignorance Minimal communication about birth control
Guilt related to sexual activity
Alcohol use
Mass media norms of unprotected promiscuity

42. Sexually Transmitted Infections
Statistics of STIs
Teen abstinence
High intelligence
Religious engagement
Father presence
Participation in service learning programs
xxx

43. Sexual Orientation
Sexual Orientation - An enduring sexual attraction toward members of either one's own gender or the other gender.
Heterosexual
Homosexual
Sexual orientation statistics – 3-4% men; 1-2% women
Erotic plasticity – women more likely to feel bisexual attraction, more changeable than men in sexual orientation

44. How is Sexual Orientation Determined
There has been NO evidence that sexuality is socially determined.
Kids raised by gay parents are no more likely to be gay that if they were raised by hetero parents.
Indicates it is likely biologically determined.

45. The Brain
Simon LeVay - cluster of cells in hypothalamus that is larger in heterosexual men.
Right hemisphere larger in heterosexual men, and lesbian women
Differences are very early postnatally if not prenatally
Originate at about the time of birth or even before

46. Prenatal Environment
men who have older brothers are somewhat more likely to be gay (about 1/3 more likely for each additional older brother)
Blanchard study – maternal immune defense response to foreign substances produced by male fetus
preventing fetus brain from developing in male-typical pattern.

47. Prenatal Environment Hormonal levels in the prenatal environment
elevated rates of homosexual orientation in identical and fraternal twins
exposure to hormone levels typical for female fetus predisposes the person to be attracted to males (whether male or female)
Fingerprint ridges are higher in right hand than left in heterosexual males

48. Genes Genes – homosexuality does run in families
identical twins more likely to share a homosexual orientation
Studies on female fruit-flies – single gene determines sexual orientation and behavior

49. Biological Correlates of Sexual Orientation
Brain Differences
Brain asymmetry is greater in straight men and lesbian women (right hemisphere larger)
One hypothalamic cell cluster is larger in straight men tan in women and gay men
Prenatal Hormone Influences
Altered prenatal hormone exposure may lead to homosexuality in humans and other animals
Right-handed men with several older biological brothers are more likely to be gay (Fraternal Birth Order)
Genetic Influences
Shared sexual orientation is higher among identical twins than fraternal twins
Sexual attraction in fruit flies can be genetically altered
Brain Differences and Genetic and prenatal influences may contribute to gay-straight differences in…
Spatial abilities Gender nonconformity
Fingerprint ridge count auditory system develop.
Male body size Sleep length
Handedness occupational preferences
Physical aggression relative finger lengths
Male eating disorders age onset of male puberty

50. The Need to Belong Aiding survival Wanting to belong
Sustaining relationships
Ostracism – social exclusion
Increased activity in the anterior cingulate cortex

51. Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work
Achievement Motivation What motivates us to work? (School, job, sports, video games, relationships etc..)
Intrinsic Motivators
Extrinsic Motivators
Rewards we get internally, such as enjoyment or satisfaction.
Reward that we get for accomplishments from outside ourselves (grades or money or etc..)
Work great in the short run.

52. Management Theory Management/Teaching styles relate closely to Intrinsic/Extrinsic Motivators.
Theory Y
Theory X
Managers believes that employees will work only if rewarded with benefits or threatened with punishment.
Employees are Extrinsically Motivated.
Managers believe that employees are internally motivated to do good work and policies should encourage this internal motive.
Employees are Intrinsically Motivated.

53. When Motives Conflict
approach-approach conflict - must choose between two desirable or attractive goals
Example: Birthday trip to Hawaii or Mexico
avoidance-avoidance conflict - must choose between two more or less equally undesirable or unattractive goals.
Example: unwanted homework or doing unwanted house chores
approach-avoidance conflict – choose to pursue or avoid something that has both a positive and negative aspect to it.
Example: Riding a motorcycle to look cool, but freezing your butt off
Multiple approach avoidance conflict – choose between two or more things with both desirable and undesirable features
Example: Choosing a college- Ohio State is inexpensive, but everyone from Solon goes there, Michigan has a great program, but it’s expensive