1. Motivation in Organizations
Chapter 7:
Organizational Behavior 261
Gabrielle Durepos

2. Outline Towards an understanding of motivation
Intrinsic versus Extrinsic motivation
Early theories of motivation
Hedonism
Taylor’s Scientific Management and Motivation
Mayo and the Hawthorn Studies
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Conclusions

3. Towards an Understanding of Motivation
Work motivation is understood as:
An individual’s desire to direct and sustain energy in performing a task
Most described as an internal desire “to move”
Individual motivation is related to an individual’s characteristics
i.e. self-efficacy, locus of control, ability
There are many theories of motivation
There is no ‘right’ or ‘wrong’ theory of motivation
OB theories of motivation draw on psychology literature
Psychological literature defines motivation as:
An internal process that acts in governing / guiding choices and maintaining behavior or voluntary activity over time

4. Intrinsic versus Extrinsic Motivation
Refers to an influence to the motivation level from external sources
Traditionally viewed as negative
“oh… you are only doing that so you can get something out of it…”
Limited effectiveness, short term duration
Has been shown to negatively affect intrinsic motivation
Examples – praise, salary, status, bonus
Intrinsic Motivation
Refers to an influence to the motivation level from internal sources
Traditionally viewed as positive
“I am doing this cause I want to do it…”
Examples – excitement about a work challenge, pride in making a difference, personal development & growth that comes from learning a new task

5. Early Theories of Motivation: Hedonism
Refers to the belief that we actively seek out pleasure and try to avoid pain
Hedonism assumes that humans have “choice”
Assumes humans are rational in their thought process
Became known as the “carrot” and “stick” approach
tivation%20and%20rewards%20in%20organisation&emb=0
Most theories of motivation are based on the concept of hedonism

6. Taylor is concerned with inefficiency at work due to:
Early Theories of Motivation: Taylor’s Scientific Management and Motivation
Taylor is concerned with inefficiency at work due to:
Attitude of workers, methods of work & system of management control
 One way he redressed this was by introducing a system of motivation
Taylor assumes the worker as:
Lazy
Concerned only with financial rewards
Having a drive to work hard ONLY if rewarded financially, i.e. a piece rate system
This theory is based on extrinsic motivation
Later studies (human relations school) show that money is not the sole motivator at work

7. Early Theories of Motivation: Mayo & the Hawthorn Studies
Mayo & The Human Relations School:
Believed that money is NOT the sole motivator for hard work
Humans are motivated by the social relationships they have with other humans at work
Work is a key place where humans socialize
The study of human relationships at work is still prominent today
This theory is based on extrinsic motivation

8. Contemporary Theories of Motivation
Contemporary theories of motivation are more sophisticated
They account for many factors in the study of motivation & complexity of human behavior
Have been classified as:
Content Theories (Needs Theories)
All people strive to fulfill certain needs
Look at the “content” of those needs – what are the needs that people are seeking to fulfill?
Are they safety needs, self esteem needs, self actualization needs?
Looks at the “what”
Process Theories
Refer to the actual process by which individuals are motivated
What mental processes do people use to inform what they will do? How are people motivated at work?
Do they compare themselves with others to gauge their work efforts? Do they feel that the effort they “put in” will mirror what they “get out”?
Looks at the “how”

9. Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
All humans have needs which they are motivated to fulfill
Focus on psychological wellness
Human needs exist in a hierarchically structured form
Lower level needs must be met before higher level needs can be met
Those at the top (growth needs) are intrinsically motivated. Those at the bottom (basic needs) are extrinsically motivated
As lower level needs are satisfied, they no longer primarily drive behavior & higher needs become motivating

10. Individual needs not always clustered around these categories
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: Criticisms of Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
Seen as too rigid
Individual needs not always clustered around these categories
Satisfying one level of needs does not always lead to the next level of motivation described
Some individuals may satisfy their needs in a different order
Little empirical research supporting the theory
Difficult to test empirically
Doesn’t explain how to motivate people
Specifically in low paying jobs beyond the lower level needs

11. Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: Alderfer’s Existence-Relatedness-Growth Theory
This is a “needs theory” based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs
Alderfer outlines three areas of needs
Existence (akin to Maslow’s physiological and safety needs)
Relatedness (akin to Maslow’s social needs)
Growth (akin to Maslow’s self-esteem and self-actualization needs)
The three levels of needs are:
Not mutually exclusive
Always present
Progression from one level to the next:
Individuals move freely between various types of needs; so existence needs to not have to be met prior to relatedness needs
More suited to explain complexity of human life than a linear model
Criticism
Research has not validated Alderfer’s ERG theory

12. McGregor believes that there are two theories of employee- management:
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Borrows heavily from Maslow in its emphasis on understanding human needs
McGregor believes that there are two theories of employee- management:
Theory X – Managers view employees as:
Lazy, only work hard if monitored closely
Akin to Maslow’s lower level needs
Extrinsically motivated
Theory Y – Managers view employees as:
Wanting to work hard, can be autonomous, valued strategic resources
Akin to Maslow’s upper level needs
Intrinsically motivated
Theory Y is sometimes difficult to support
Due to difficult financial times

13. Theory of needs that divides needs into two distinct categories:
Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: Herzberg’s Motivator-Hygiene Theory
Theory of needs that divides needs into two distinct categories:
Motivators
Have an effect on level of motivation
Are intrinsic to the individual
Examples: the challenge of work provided, the importance of one’s contributions, achievement of personal growth
Hygiene
Do not have an effect on level of motivation
If not present, these have an effect on work dissatisfaction
Are extrinsic to the individual
Examples: work environment, characteristics of the supervisor, salary
Research on this theory has mixed results
Some researchers support it

14. Contemporary Theories of Motivation – Content Theories: McClelland’s Learned Needs Theory
Develops a “needs theory” where needs are
Learned from society – people develop needs through socialization
Needs can be taught
Are not inherent – people are not born with certain needs
McClelland notes that there are three areas of needs 
Need for Power
Need for Achievement
Need for Affiliation
Research has shown that:
“need for achievement” can be a good predictor of job performance when coupled with a supportive work environment
Managers with a high need for power and high discipline make the best motivators
Criticism - can a “need for achievement” be learned!?

15. Conclusions Work motivation is understood as:
The individual’s desire to direct and sustain energy towards performing a task
Most describe an internal desire “to move”
Motivation can be intrinsic or extrinsic
There are many theories of motivation
There is not one best theory of motivation
Some theories are better suited for certain situations
Human behavior is very complex
Can not assume that applying one theory of motivation will enable us to fully understand the process of motivation