2.  1954: Brown v. Board of Ed of Topeka  Segregation still exists ◦ Mostly in the north ◦ Black neighborhoods and white neighborhoods  State courts forced local governments to bus children to outside neighborhoods for racial balance ◦ Response?

3.  Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenberg Board of Ed (1971) ◦ Busing constitutionally legal ◦ 20,000 white students left Boston’s public school system ◦ By 1976: Minorities made up the majority of Boston’s public school students  Other issues: ◦ White Flight ◦ Miliken v. Bradley (1974): Busing unconstitutional unless districts had been drawn to create segregation

4.  Active effort to improve education and employment opportunities for minorities  Called for companies, schools, & institutions doing business with federal gov’t to recruit African Americans ◦ Would ultimately lead to improved status ◦ Later expanded upon to include other minorities  Atlanta example: ◦ Maynard Jackson ◦ Public contracts (<1% before Jackson)

5.  Allan Bakke: white applicant for medical school at UC-Davis  Rejected twice; found out African American students with lower grades were accepted  Slots set aside for minorities—sued them for racial discrimination

6.  On a piece of paper, write out what you expect to be the ruling of the Bakke case ◦ Did the courts support Bakke as discrimination? ◦ Did the courts support affirmative action? ◦ Why would you expect this result?  After a few minutes, I will ask you to discuss with a neighbor the results of the case

7.  1978: University of California Regents v. Bakke declared a violation of civil rights ◦ UC-Davis quotas were illegal ◦ However, universities can use race as criteria for admission as long as they avoided fixed quotas

8.  Jesse Jackson ◦ Founded PUSH (People United to Save Humanity)  Goal: register voters, develop African American businesses, broaden educational opportunities ◦ Founded National Rainbow Coalition  Advocates equal rights ◦ Ran for president twice ◦ Recipient of Presidential Medal of Freedom  1971: Congressional Black Caucus

9.  Shirley Chisholm ◦ Founding member of the Congressional Black Caucus ◦ First African American woman in Congress (NY)  Andrew Young ◦ First African American to serve as US ambassador to UN ◦ Mayor of Atlanta  By early 1980s: African American mayors in ATL, DET, CHI, LA, NO, PHI, DC

10.  Louis Farrakhan ◦ Prominent minister of Nation of Islam ◦ Organized Million Man March to promote self- reliance and responsibility  L. Douglas Wilder ◦ 1 st African American Governor (1990 in VA)  David Dinkins ◦ 1 st African American mayor of NYC

11.  Unemployment ten times higher than average  Annual income by family $1000 less than African Americans  Life Expectancy 7 years lower than national average

12.  1961: Declaration of Indian Purpose ◦ Asked for Federal Programs to create economic opportunity on reservation  1968: Indian Civil Rights Act ◦ Reservations get protections of Bill of Rights and local reservation law  American Indian Movement (AIM) ◦ Militant group unhappy with gov’t efforts ◦ 1969 protest: 19 months occupying Alcatraz ◦ Feb. 1973: Seized town of Wounded Knee for 70 days

13.  1975: Indian Self-Determination and Educational Assistance Act ◦ Increased funding ◦ Local control ◦ More positions in Bureau of Indian Affairs  Other gains: ◦ Property ◦ Taxation Authority ◦ Resorts

14.  1968: Architectural Barriers Act ◦ Accessibility for disabled people  Rehabilitation Act of 1973 ◦ Section 504: “no otherwise qualified individual with a disability…shall…be…excluded from participation in…benefits of, or subjected to discrimination under any program or service or activity receiving federal financial assistance…” ◦ No enforcements lead to little change ◦ Protests: Frank Bowe, head of American Coalition of Citizens with Disabilities, led sit-ins at Dept of HEW buildings (1977)

15.  1966: Bureau for Education of the Handicapped ◦ Grants to develop new programs  1975: Education for All Handicapped Children Act ◦ Free, appropriate education ◦ Mainstreaming  1990: American with Disabilities Act ◦ New discrimination laws for employment, transportation, education, etc.