1. Chapter 21: The Muslim Empires
AKA: Gunpowder Empires

2. THE OTTOMAN EMPIRE

3. Where did the Ottomans come from?
Name came from “Osman,” a leader of a western Anatolian nomadic group who began expansionistic moves in the 14th century.
Gradually these nomads took over Anatolia and became the border between Islam and Byzantine Christian

4. The Ottoman Empire
Ottomans gain ground in Asia Minor (Anatolia) throughout the 1350’s
1453: Ottoman capture of Constantinople under the Ottoman sultan Mehmed II
Ottomans were a major power in the Arab World, the Balkans, and around the Black and Red Seas.
Sunni Muslims

6. The Ottoman Empire
Turkic Cavalry quickly turns into a warrior aristocracy
Janissaries: infantry divisions which dominated the imperial armies
Usually conscripted as adolescents
Typically Christian children, taken and converted/trained
Controlled the artillery and firearms
Gained tremendous power as time went on

7. Devshirme
Christian youths captured(sometimes given) by the Ottoman agents and recruited for the Imperial civil service and standing army
Converted to Islam
The brightest 10% entered the Palace school and were trained for civil service
The others were sent to Turkish farms and were trained for toughness = Janissaries
Janissaries were the elite army corps who were absolutely loyal to the Sultan

8. The Ottoman Empire Sultans were absolute monarchs
Ottoman conquest usually meant effective administration and tax relief
The grand vizier (wazir) was the true head of “state.”
Political succession was vague and often contested however
Sons often battled after the death of their father
Ottoman perk: Awesome vizier hats

9. The Conquest of Constantinople = the Imperial phase of the Ottomans
Constantinople was renamed Istanbul
Mehmet II cleaned up the city and began many building mosques, markets, water fountains, baths, and other public facilities

10. The Ottoman Empire
Ottoman sultans worked tirelessly to improve the imperial capital of Constantinople (Istanbul)
Saint Sophia (remember Byzantine empire?) was converted to a mosque
Built the Suleymaniye mosque (below)

11. Hagia Sophia as a Mosque

12. Many Jewish people, who were cruelly oppressed in Western Europe (aka Reconquista), moved to Istanbul and found Turkey to be a “haven” = a mass migration of Jewish people soon followed

13. Suleiman the “Lawgiver”
Sultanic law codes
Reformed the government
Balanced the budget
Reinforced Islamic law

14. Suleiman the “Magnificent”
Grandeur of his court
Built palaces, mosques, schools, libraries, hospitals, roads, bridges, etc.
Cultural explosion (pax Ottomanica) – literary, artistic, and scientific achievements
Pasha Sinan – Suleiman’s Architect

15. Conversion to Islam
Millet system (non-Muslims formed small communities and were allowed to keep their faith (Jewish or Christian) as long as they paid the jitza (a tax).
Local officials were replaced by Ottoman government officials

16. The Ottoman Empire (Decline)
The empire did last into the 20th century, and lasted for over 600 years!
However, later sultans were less prepared to rule
Increasing power to the viziers, and Janissary corps.
Political instability in the region (more on this later in the year)
Ottoman defeat at the battle of Lepanto against the combined Spanish and Venetian fleet in 1571
Ottomans were unable to push the Portuguese from the Indian Ocean in the 1500s
Ottoman tax collectors lose critical revenue

17. The Ottomans signed capitulations with the European countries = loss of revenue

18. Capitulations
Foreign subjects now protected by their individual country’s laws
They were no longer legally accountable in the Ottoman Empire.
Possible for foreign governments to levy duties (taxes) on goods sold in Turkish ports
Foreign powers were also able to set up banks, post offices, and commercial houses on Turkish soil that were exempt from Turkish taxes and were able to compete with local firms.

19. The Ottoman Empire
Influx of silver bullion in the 16th century from the New World also destabilized the Ottoman economy
Ottomans did not overly concern themselves with developments in Europe, like Scientific Revolutions, enlightenment, and industrial advancements of the ’s.
Ottomans fell behind in trade and warfare more than anything
Janissaries block most modes of change in defense of their own power.
We will revisit this decline just before WWI (when the Ottoman’s fall)

20. Loss of intellectualism = loss of innovation = fall behind the Europeans in technology

21. THE SAFAVID EMPIRE

22. The Safavids created an empire in
Persia in the 1500s.

23. The Ottomans and Safavids were rivals.

24. Sectarian Violence
Violence between two sections of the same religion is called “sectarian violence”.
Sail-al-Din re-ignited the push to spread Shia Islam
Initially, followers wore red head gear and were called “Red Heads”

25. The Safavids
The Safavids established a Shi’ite state in Persia, modern-day Iran.
The Safavids were in conflict with the Sunni Ottomans.
Both the Shi’ite Safavids and the Sunni Ottomans claimed to be the true leaders of the Islamic world.

26. Shahs Safavid rulers were called Shahs.
A Shah was an absolute ruler of the Safavid Empire.
Shahs used their large armies to maintain control of their empire.

27. Safavid The Safavid Dynasty started with Shah Ismail.
He was a descendant of Safi al-Din who had been the leader of a Turkish ethnic groups in Azerbaijan near the Caspian Sea.
Under Ismail, the Safavid took control of much of Iran and Iraq

28. Modern Day distribution of Shi’a Muslims
Safavid
Ismail called himself “shah,” or king, of the new Persian state.
Ismail was a Shi’a Muslim. He sent preachers to different areas to convert members of the Ottoman Empire.
Battle of Chaldiran: Fought against Sunni Ottomans (who had better firepower)
Essentially set the boundaries for modern day Shi’a Islam
Modern Day distribution of Shi’a Muslims

29. Safavid
Shah Abbas, who ruled from 1588 to 1629, brought the Safavids to their highest point of glory.
He usurped the throne from his father and imprisoned him. He later killed the man who helped him get the throne.
He attacked the Ottoman Turks, with European help – they saw the Safavids as allies – to regain lost lands from the Ottomans.
The Safavids could not keep territorial gains, but a treaty was signed in 1612 returning Azerbaijan to the Safavids.

30. Safavid
The Safavid Empire went from Azerbaijan on the Caspian Sea east to India; along the Persian Gulf and Arabian Sea north to the southern border of Russia.
When Shah Abbas died, religious orthodoxy, a pressure to conform to traditional religious beliefs, increased. Women were to give up freedom for a life of seclusion and the wearing of the veil.

31. Safavid Trade Safavid rulers greatly encouraged trade.
The production of beautiful Persian rugs and miniature paintings flourished in the Safavid Empire.
Rugs from the period are highly valued today.
E. Napp

32. Literature, medicine, and the study of astronomy thrived in
Safavid Persia.
E. Napp

33. Safavid Decline
However, high taxes and continuous warfare with the Ottoman Empire weakened the Safavids.
In 1722, the Safavid Empire was conquered by neighboring Afghanistan.
E. Napp

34. THE MOGUL (Mughal) Empire

35. BABUR
He founded the empire in 1526 when he defeated a Delhi sultan
His army of 12,000 defeated the sultan’s 100,000 men
Moguls were descendants of the Mongols, Turks, Iranians and Afghans

36. Babur Educated warrior Fond of poetry
Created Persian gardens wherever he conquered because missed cool climate of his homeland (see painting)
Ruled North India from
Died before the his administrative skills in consolidating the empire were tested.
Empire passed to his son Humayan

37. Humayan Alternated between great energy and indolence
Lost empire to rival, had to flee to Safavid empire (Persia / Iran) for help
Son Akbar born during exile, left behind with mother and guardian

38. Humayan’s Tomb
With help of Safavids, Humayan regained the empire, 1555
Shortly thereafter, fell down stairs of his observatory, probably under the influence of either opium or alcohol, and died (1556)
In the words of one chronicler, he “stumbled out of this life much as he had stumbled through it”.

39. AKBAR 1556-1605 He was Babur’s grandson and took the throne at 13
He spent most of his reign making and changing administrative policies
Added many new territories to the empire and built the largest army in Mogul history

40. Akbar Restrains Haa'i, an Enraged Elephant by Basawan with Chitra c

41. Akbar attempts social reforms by: Discouraging child marriage
He encouraged intermarriage
Encouraging widows to re-marry instead of the practice of sati
Sati: burning of widows on their husband’s funeral pyre

42. Akbar was one of the first Mogul rulers to effectively rule the diverse ethnic make-up of the empire
Appointed by Hindus to high ranking positions
He accepted all religions and sects
Sons fought over succession (as was becoming the norm)

43. Jahangir
Often drunken and cruel, his later years found him often incapacitated by opium and alcohol abuse
Married a 34 year-old Persian widow he renamed Nur Jahan (“Light of the World”). She would become one of the strongest personalities of the Mogul period

44. Jahangir
Nur Jahan was the de facto ruler of the Mogul empire for the last half of Jahangir’s reign, due to his indolence and inebriation. She schemed to get her relatives in positions of power
Replaced by his son Prince Khurram, who he renamed Shah Jahan (“Emperor of the World”)

45. SHAH JAHAN
Prince Khurram took the throne at 35 and changed his name to Shah Jahan (King of the World)
He spent most of his time trying to expand south

46. SHAH JAHAN He was a competent commander with a strict sense of justice
During his rule he built palaces, mosques and gardens
The best known structure is the Taj Mahal, built for the love of his life, Mumtaz Muhal (in a time when romance was not common)
The building of the Taj Muhal caused massive financial strain for the empire
Shah Jahan became depressed after Muhal’s death and his leadership declined

48. SHAH JAHAN
When he became sick his sons fought for control of the empire
Eventually his son Aurangzeb captured the throne and imprisoned his father at Fort Agra because he supported Dara Shukoh (an older son)
Although it sounds harsh, most Mogul rulers killed their fathers upon succession

49. TAJ MAHAL
Shah Jahan built the mausoleum for his wife Mumtaz Mahal in Agra
It took 23 years to complete
It is constructed of materials from India and all over Asia

50. What did Mumtaz Mahal* look like?
According to art historian Milo Beach, "There are paintings that are labeled 'Mumtaz Mahal,' but they are simply generalized depictions of a Mughal beauty. There's virtually no contemporary account of her, because none of the historians would have had contact with her. . . Under Mohammed's law of "purdah," the law of the veil, women were obliged to hide their faces from public view. The only women depicted in paintings were court dancers and entertainers; it was taboo to paint royal women. . . Royal women were kept in seclusion, but that has nothing to do with the power they held. They clearly were extremely powerful. Shah Jahan's father, Jahangir, married a woman named Nur Jahan who was really the person who ran the empire for the second half of Jahangir's reign, when he became addicted to opium and alcohol. He barely functioned as an emperor, and she ran the country."
*birth name: Arjumand Banu Begum

51. TAJ MAHAL The structure is 1900’ x 1000’
The best parts of all former Mughal tombs were used to design it
While imprisoned Shah Jahan could see the Taj from his window
Legend claims that Shah Jahan had the eyes of the architect gouged out so nothing as beautiful could be created again.
When he died he was buried next to his wife

52. The Taj from a window at Fort Agra

54. Semi precious stones were used to create mosaics
The exterior is covered in marble

56. Aurangzeb (Ruled )
IThe more tolerant and scholarly son Dara Shikoh was defeated by Aurangzeb, a more pious Muslim.
Shah Jahan recovered, but it was too late for Aurangzeb to back down. He had Shah Jahan imprisoned and the head of his brother sent to him in jail. Shah Jahan lived out his life looking at the Taj Mahal from his prison window.
Aurangzeb killed all his brothers and any other collateral male relatives deemed a threat.
Reading the Quran

57. Aurangzeb takes Shah Jahan Prisoner

58. Mughal Expansion Under Aurangzeb
Aurangzeb also known as Alamgir (“World Conqueror”)
Aurangzeb launched military campaigns that eventually added most of the Deccan and South India to the empire
The cost of these expeditions would later weaken the empire

59. Cost of Aurangzeb’s Deccan Campaigns
Casualities: approximately 100,000 lives per year for the last several decades of his attacks, often the result of capturing a Maratha fort one week, losing it the next, then recapturing it.
A moving capital city of tents 30 miles in circumference, over 250 bazaars, 500,000 camp followers, 50,000 camels, and 30,000 elephants, all of whom had to be fed
The Deccan was stripped of its wealth. Famine and bubonic plague took even more lives among civilians
The anger of Hindus was raised against this Moslem king as a result of his cruelty to non-believers. Ex. the Maratha ruler Sambhaji was captured, tortured, and butchered to death
Nearing 90, Aurangzeb finally withdrew in 1705, reading and copying the Qur’an in preparation for his death. He confessed to his son, “I came alone, and I go as a stranger. I do not know who I am, nor what I have been doing. I have sinned terribly, and I do not know what punishment awaits me.”

60. End of Mughal Empire
While at the beginning of the eighteenth century the Mughal empire looked strong, it was beginning to decline and decay
Weak rulers, regional and factional rivalries, and foreign invasion all eventually brought the empire to an end
The incursions of the Europeans, especially the British and the French, were setting the stage for the next period of Indian history(division and British conquest)
Last emperor sent into exile by British following Great Mutiny of 1857