1. Questionnaires and Interviews
Data collection methods:
Questionnaires are documents that ask the same questions of all individuals in the sample.
Interviews consist of oral questions by the interviewer and oral responses by the research participants.
Survey: use questionnaires or interviews to collect data from participants in a sample about their characteristics, experiences, and opinions in order to generalize the findings to a population that the sample is intended to represent.

2. Advantages of Data Collection Methods
Questionnaires
Cost of sampling respondents over a wide geographic area is lower
Time required to collect data is much less
Interviews
Adaptability (i.e., Interviewers can follow-up a respondent’s answer to obtain more information
Build trust and rapport with respondents, thus making it possible to obtain more information

3. Issues of Data Collection Methods
Questionnaires
Commonly used in quantitative research (i.e., Standardized, highly-structured design)
Anonymity of respondents
Cannot probe respondents’ opinions and feelings
Interviews
Commonly used in qualitative research
Permits open-ended exploration of topics
Difficult to standardize the interview situation
Cannot provide anonymity for the respondents

4. Steps in Constructing and Administering a Questionnaire
Defining Research Objectives
Selecting a Sample
Designing the Questionnaire Format (anonymity, item form [closed vs. open-ended]; Likert scale)
Pretesting the Questionnaire
Precontacting the Sample (letter, postcard, telephone call)
Writing a Cover Letter and Distributing the Questionnaire
Following Up with Nonrespondents
Analyzing Questionnaire Data
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

5. Defining Research Objectives
Important to define your research problem and list the specific objectives to be achieved, or hypotheses to be tested, by the questionnaire.
D. A. deVaus (1986):
What is the time frame?
What is the geographical location of your interest?
Are you interested in a broad descriptive study or do you want to specify and compare different subgroups?
What aspect of the topic do you want to study?
How abstract is your interest?
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

6. Selecting a Sample
Identify the target population from which your sample will be selected
Chapter 6 (GBG): sampling techniques
Failure to understand and/or have knowledge of the situation will result in making mistakes (e.g., incomplete questionnaires, low response rates, etc.)
Identify strategies to select target population (e.g., mailing list, generated reports (MIS), etc.)
Quality and accuracy of lists
Complete information (name, address, telephone numbers, etc.)
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

7. Designing the Questionnaire Format
Careful construction of the questionnaire is critical and takes time
Guidelines for Designing a Questionnaire (Figure 8.1)
Anonymity vs. Confidentiality
Item-Form (closed vs. open-ended) – advantages and disadvantages
Measuring attitudes (Likert scale)
Refer to research literature and other instruments
Content experts
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

8. Pretesting the Questionnaire
Important to pretest the questionnaire before using it in your study
Pretest SHOULD include a sample of individuals from the target population
Strategies:
Pretest form of the questionnaire should provide space for respondents’ comments/feedback
Ask respondents to state in “their own words” what they think each question means (issue of validity and reliability)
Questions should be revised and retested again
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

9. Precontacting the Sample
Contacting respondents before sending a questionnaire increases the rate of response
Precontact involves:
Researcher identifying themselves, discussing the purpose of the study, and requesting cooperation
Strategies include: letter, postcard, telephone call,
Precontacts are effective because they alert respondents to the immediate arrival of the questionnaire – reduce the chance that it will be thrown out as junk mail
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

10. Writing a Cover Letter and Distributing the Questionnaire
Objective in doing a questionnaire survey is to achieve a high return rate
Cover Letter:
Should be brief, convey important information (purpose, participation, outcomes, deadline, etc.)
Incentives (certificate, cash, lottery, etc.)
Include a stamped, self-addressed envelope
Format of Questionnaire (i.e., design and neatness, use of color, etc.)
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

11. Following Up with Nonrespondents
Strategies:
Follow-up letter, along with another copy of the questionnaire and another self-addressed stamped envelope; postcard reminders
Develop a different cover letter (different approach)
Check Nonrespondents
Identify nonrespondents (i.e., background characteristics, etc.) - Would results differ if all respondents returned the questionnaire?
20% rule (ability to generalize findings)
Solicit nonrespondents (in-person, telephone)
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

12. Analyzing Questionnaire Data
Quantitative Data:
Statistical Programs (SPSS, SAS, Excel, etc.)
Descriptive statistics, crosstabulations
Multivariate analyses
Qualitative Data:
Text analysis programs
Coding and sorting of data
Identify themes (develop theory, constructs, etc.)
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

13. Steps in Preparing and Conducting Research Interviews
Defining the Purpose of the Interview
Selecting a Sample
Designing the Interview Format
Developing Questions
Selecting and Training Interviewers
Pretesting the Interview
Conducting the Interviews
Analyzing Interview Data
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

14. Defining the Purpose of the Interview
Important to define the purpose of the study
Purpose will determine the nature of the interview because different purposes require different levels of structure, types of questions, and interviewer qualifications
Types of Research Interviews:
Key Informant Interviews: individuals possess special knowledge or perceptions of interest
Survey Interviews: confirmation survey, participant construct, projective techniques
Group Interviews: focus groups
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

15. Selecting a Sample
A sample of respondents should be selected using one of the quantitative or qualitative sampling techniques (refer to Chapter 6, GBG)
Individual vs. focus groups (focus groups vary in size between 7-10 individuals)
Rationale of sampling technique employed in research design
Examples:
Stratified sample
Non-random sample of respondents
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

16. Designing the Interview Format
Formats in Quantitative Research
Structured interview
Semi-structured interview
Unstructured interview
Formats in Qualitative Research
Informational conversational interview
General interview guide approach
Standardized open-ended interview
Telephone Interviewing
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

17. Developing Questions
Depends on the type of interview approach employed
Strategies/Issues:
Interview guide or protocol
Skill and/or ability of interviewer (informal, unstructured, or open-ended)
Validity and reliability of questions (open or closed-ended)
Test questions prior to administration and/or use
Refer to research literature, experts’ input
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

18. Selecting and Training Interviewers
Decide number of interviewers to employ and whether they must have special qualifications
Important selection criteria is the interviewer’s ability to relate to respondents positively
Match interviewers and respondents on certain characteristics (social class, race, age, gender, etc.)
Training Interviewers:
Study interview guide/protocol and learn about the interview conditions (e.g., logistics, topics, etc.)
Conduct practice interviews and provide feedback
Address issues
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

19. Conducting Interviews
Interviewing Tasks
Guidelines for Conducting a Research Interview (Figure 8.5)
Presentation, rapport, trust, understanding, sensitivity, etc.
Recording Interview Data
Note taking or tape recording
Advantages and disadvantages of method used
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)

20. Analyzing Interview Data
Analysis of closed-ended interview questions is straightforward
Report percentage (quantify data)
Frequency of responses, etc.
Analysis of open-ended questions requires development of a category system
Transcription of data
Analysis of interview data (researcher and objective party)
Coding scheme (organization, structure, reliability, etc.)
Defining Research Objectives: (time frame of interest, geographical location, identify groups/subgroups of interest, identify aspect of the topic you want to study, how abstract is your interest)