Figure 42.1 Figure 42.1 How does a feathery fringe help this animal survive?

Name: Figure 42.1 Figure 42.1 How does a feathery fringe help this animal survive?
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Description: Figure 42.1 Figure 42.1 How does a feathery fringe help this animal survive?

How does blood help regulate homeostasis?

How does blood help regulate homeostasis?
pH Oxygen Nitrogen Osmolality Sugar Minerals (e.g. calcium)

Circulation and Gas Exchange
Chapter 42 Circulation and Gas Exchange

(a) The moon jelly Aurelia, a cnidarian
Figure 42.2 Circular canal Mouth Gastrovascular cavity Mouth Figure 42.2 Internal transport in gastrovascular cavities. Pharynx Radial canals 5 cm 2 mm (a) The moon jelly Aurelia, a cnidarian (b) The planarian Dugesia, a flatworm

(a) An open circulatory system (b) A closed circulatory system
Figure 42.3 (a) An open circulatory system (b) A closed circulatory system Heart Heart Interstitial fluid Hemolymph in sinuses surrounding organs Blood Small branch vessels in each organ Pores Dorsal vessel (main heart) Auxiliary hearts Figure 42.3 Open and closed circulatory systems. Tubular heart Ventral vessels

(a) Single circulation (b) Double circulation
Figure 42.4 (a) Single circulation (b) Double circulation Pulmonary circuit Gill capillaries Lung capillaries Artery Heart: A A Atrium (A) V V Ventricle (V) Right Left Vein Figure 42.4 Single and double circulation in vertebrates. Systemic capillaries Body capillaries Systemic circuit Key Oxygen-rich blood Oxygen-poor blood

Reptiles (Except Birds) Mammals and Birds
Figure 42.5 Amphibians Reptiles (Except Birds) Mammals and Birds Pulmocutaneous circuit Pulmonary circuit Pulmonary circuit Lung and skin capillaries Lung capillaries Lung capillaries Right systemic aorta Left systemic aorta Atrium (A) Atrium (A) A A A A V V Incomplete septum Incomplete septum V V Right Left Right Left Right Left Ventricle (V) Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Systemic capillaries Figure 42.5 Exploring: Double Circulation in Vertebrates Systemic circuit Systemic circuit Systemic circuit Key Oxygen-rich blood Oxygen-poor blood

In reptiles and mammals, oxygen-poor blood flows through the pulmonary circuit to pick up oxygen through the lungs In amphibians, oxygen-poor blood flows through a pulmocutaneous circuit to pick up oxygen WHAT IS THE DIFFERENCE? WHY DO AMPHIBIANS BOTHER? Do they need lungs when underwater? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

PATHWAY OF BLOOD, POST-HEART
5,000 4,000 Area (cm2) 3,000 2,000 1,000 50 40 Velocity (cm/sec) 30 20 10 Figure The interrelationship of cross-sectional area of blood vessels, blood flow velocity, and blood pressure. 120 Systolic pressure 100 Pressure (mm Hg) 80 60 Diastolic pressure 40 20 Aorta Arteries Veins Venae cavae Venules Arterioles Capillaries

Heart animation Animation: Path of Blood Flow in Mammals
© 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Animation: Path of Blood Flow in Mammals
Right-click slide / select “Play” © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Superior vena cava Capillaries of head and forelimbs Pulmonary
Figure 42.6 Superior vena cava Capillaries of head and forelimbs Pulmonary artery Pulmonary artery Capillaries of right lung Aorta Capillaries of left lung Pulmonary vein Pulmonary vein Left atrium Figure 42.6 The mammalian cardiovascular system: an overview. Right atrium Left ventricle Right ventricle Aorta Inferior vena cava Capillaries of abdominal organs and hind limbs

Pulmonary artery Aorta Pulmonary artery Right atrium Left atrium
Figure 42.7 Pulmonary artery Aorta Pulmonary artery Right atrium Left atrium Semilunar valve Semilunar valve Figure 42.7 The mammalian heart: a closer look. Atrioventricular valve Atrioventricular valve Right ventricle Left ventricle

The contraction, or pumping, phase is called systole
The heart contracts and relaxes in a rhythmic cycle called the cardiac cycle The contraction, or pumping, phase is called systole The relaxation, or filling, phase is called diastole © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Atrial and ventricular diastole 0.4 sec 1 Figure 42.8-1
Figure 42.8 The cardiac cycle. 0.4 sec

Atrial systole and ventricular diastole
Figure Atrial systole and ventricular diastole 2 Atrial and ventricular diastole 1 0.1 sec Figure 42.8 The cardiac cycle. 0.4 sec

Atrial systole and ventricular diastole
Figure Atrial systole and ventricular diastole 2 Atrial and ventricular diastole 1 0.1 sec Figure 42.8 The cardiac cycle. 0.3 sec 0.4 sec Ventricular systole and atrial diastole 3

The heart rate, also called the pulse, is the number of beats per minute
The stroke volume is the amount of blood pumped in a single contraction The cardiac output is the volume of blood pumped into the systemic circulation per minute and depends on both the heart rate and stroke volume © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Backflow of blood through a defective valve causes a heart murmur
The “lub-dup” sound of a heart beat is caused by the recoil of blood against the AV valves (lub) then against the semilunar (dup) valves Backflow of blood through a defective valve causes a heart murmur © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Maintaining the Heart’s Rhythmic Beat
Some cardiac muscle cells are self-excitable, meaning they contract without any signal from the nervous system The sinoatrial (SA) node, or pacemaker, sets the rate and timing at which cardiac muscle cells contract Impulses that travel during the cardiac cycle can be recorded as an electrocardiogram (ECG or EKG) © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

SA node (pacemaker) ECG 1 Figure 42.9-1
Figure 42.9 The control of heart rhythm. ECG

AV SA node node (pacemaker) ECG 1 2 Figure 42.9-2
Figure 42.9 The control of heart rhythm. ECG

AV SA node node (pacemaker) Bundle branches Heart apex ECG 1 2 3
Figure 1 2 3 AV node SA node (pacemaker) Bundle branches Heart apex Figure 42.9 The control of heart rhythm. ECG

AV SA node node (pacemaker) Bundle Purkinje branches fibers Heart apex
Figure 1 2 3 4 AV node SA node (pacemaker) Bundle branches Purkinje fibers Heart apex Figure 42.9 The control of heart rhythm. ECG

The pacemaker is regulated by two portions of the nervous system: the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions The sympathetic division speeds up the pacemaker The parasympathetic division slows down the pacemaker The pacemaker is also regulated by hormones and temperature © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Blood fun facts It takes a drop of blood 20 to 60 seconds for one round-trip from and to the heart. We have approximately 100,000 miles of blood vessels Two million red blood cells die every second. The kidneys filter over 400 gallons of blood each day. The average life span of a single red blood cell is 120 days. There are 150 billion red blood cells in one ounce of blood Our hearts pump 48 million gallons of blood/year (in 10 oz. intervals) White blood cells only last 4-6 hours

Blood Vessel Structure and Function
A vessel’s cavity is called the central lumen The epithelial layer that lines blood vessels is called the endothelium The endothelium is smooth and minimizes resistance Why might high blood pressure lead to problems? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The structure of blood vessels
Artery Vein LM Red blood cells 100 m Valve Basal lamina Endothelium Endothelium Smooth muscle Smooth muscle Connective tissue Capillary Connective tissue Artery Vein Figure The structure of blood vessels. Arteriole Venule 15 m Red blood cell Capillary LM

Nitric oxide is a major inducer of vasodilation
The peptide endothelin is an important inducer of vasoconstriction Under what circumstances does the body use them? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Blood Pressure and Gravity
Blood pressure is generally measured for an artery in the arm at the same height as the heart Blood pressure for a healthy 20-year-old at rest is 120 mm Hg at systole and 70 mm Hg at diastole Fainting is caused by inadequate blood flow to the head Which animals are at greatest risk? © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Blood pressure reading: 120/70
Figure 42.12 Blood pressure reading: 120/70 1 2 3 120 120 70 Figure Measurement of blood pressure. Artery closed Sounds audible in stethoscope Sounds stop

Blood is moved through veins by smooth muscle contraction, skeletal muscle contraction, and expansion of the vena cava with inhalation One-way valves in veins prevent backflow of blood Direction of blood flow in vein (toward heart) Valve (open) Skeletal muscle Figure Blood flow in veins. Valve (closed)

Capillary Function Blood flows through only 510% of the body’s capillaries at a time Two mechanisms regulate distribution of blood in capillary beds Contraction of the smooth muscle layer in the wall of an arteriole constricts the vessel Precapillary sphincters control flow of blood between arterioles and venules Blood flow is regulated by nerve impulses, hormones, and other chemicals © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

(a) Sphincters relaxed
Figure 42.14 Precapillary sphincters Thoroughfare channel Capillaries Venule Arteriole (a) Sphincters relaxed Figure Blood flow in capillary beds. Arteriole Venule (b) Sphincters contracted

Fluid exchange between capillaries and the interstitial fluid.
Body cell Net fluid movement out Blood pressure Osmotic pressure Figure Fluid exchange between capillaries and the interstitial fluid. Arterial end of capillary Venous end of capillary Direction of blood flow

Fluid Return by the Lymphatic System
The lymphatic system returns fluid that leaks out from the capillary beds Fluid, called lymph, reenters the circulation directly at the venous end of the capillary bed and indirectly through the lymphatic system The lymphatic system drains into veins in the neck Valves in lymph vessels prevent the backflow of fluid Lymph nodes are organs that filter lymph and play an important role in the body’s defense Edema is swelling caused by disruptions in the flow of lymph © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

LYMPH NODES AND VESSELS. Where are these?
Figure Human lymph nodes and vessels.

Concept 42.4: Blood components contribute to exchange, transport, and defense
With open circulation, the fluid that is pumped comes into direct contact with all cells The closed circulatory systems of vertebrates contain blood, a specialized connective tissue © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

The composition of mammalian blood
Plasma 55% Cellular elements 45% Constituent Major functions Cell type Number per L (mm3) of blood Functions Water Solvent for carrying other substances Leukocytes (white blood cells) 5,000–10,000 Defense and immunity Ions (blood electrolytes) Osmotic balance, pH buffering, and regulation of membrane permeability Separated blood elements Lymphocytes Basophils Sodium Potassium Calcium Magnesium Chloride Bicarbonate Eosinophils Plasma proteins Monocytes Neutrophils Albumin Osmotic balance, pH buffering Platelets 250,000–400,000 Blood clotting Fibrinogen Figure The composition of mammalian blood. Clotting Immunoglobulins (antibodies) Defense Erythrocytes (red blood cells) 5–6 million Transport of O2 and some CO2 Substances transported by blood Nutrients Waste products Respiratory gases Hormones

Cellular Elements Suspended in blood plasma are three large components
Red blood cells (erythrocytes) transport oxygen O2 White blood cells (leukocytes) function in defense Platelets, a third cellular element, are fragments of cells that are involved in clotting © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Erythrocytes Red blood cells, or erythrocytes, are by far the most numerous blood cells They contain hemoglobin, the iron-containing protein that transports O2 Each molecule of hemoglobin binds up to four molecules of O2 In mammals, mature erythrocytes lack nuclei and mitochondria © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Leukocytes There are five major types of white blood cells, or leukocytes: monocytes, neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, and lymphocytes They function in defense by phagocytizing bacteria and debris or by producing antibodies They are found both in and outside of the circulatory system © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Blood clotting and formation of a thrombus
1 2 3 Collagen fibers Platelet plug Fibrin clot Platelet Red blood cell 5 m Clotting factors from: Fibrin clot formation Platelets Damaged cells Plasma (factors include calcium, vitamin K) Figure Blood clotting. Enzymatic cascade  Prothrombin Thrombin Fibrinogen Fibrin

Stem Cells and the Replacement of Cellular Elements
Figure 42.19 Stem Cells and the Replacement of Cellular Elements Stem cells (in bone marrow) Myeloid stem cells Lymphoid stem cells B cells T cells Figure Differentiation of blood cells. Erythrocytes Basophils Neutrophils Lymphocytes Monocytes Eosinophils Platelets

Cardiovascular Disease
Cardiovascular diseases account for more than half the deaths in the United States Cholesterol, a steroid, helps maintain membrane fluidity Low-density lipoprotein (LDL) delivers cholesterol to cells for membrane production High-density lipoprotein (HDL) scavenges cholesterol for return to the liver Risk for heart disease increases with a high LDL to HDL ratio © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Lumen of artery Plaque Endothelium Smooth muscle 1 2 Smooth muscle
One type of cardiovascular disease, athero-sclerosis, is caused by the buildup of plaque deposits within arteries causes strokes and heart attacks 1 2 Smooth muscle cell LDL Foam cell Extra- cellular matrix Macrophage T lymphocyte Plaque rupture 3 4 Figure Atherosclerosis. Fibrous cap Cholesterol

Heart health issues A heart attack, or myocardial infarction, is the death of cardiac muscle tissue resulting from blockage of one or more coronary arteries Coronary arteries supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart muscle A stroke is the death of nervous tissue in the brain, usually resulting from rupture or blockage of arteries in the head Angina pectoris is caused by partial blockage of the coronary arteries and results in chest pains © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Percent of individuals Percent of individuals
Figure 42.21 RESULTS Average  105 mg/dL Average  63 mg/dL 30 30 20 20 Percent of individuals Percent of individuals 10 10 50 100 150 200 250 300 50 100 150 200 250 300 Plasma LDL cholesterol (mg/dL) Figure Inquiry: Can inactivating a liver enzyme lower plasma LDL levels? Plasma LDL cholesterol (mg/dL) Individuals with two functional copies of PCSK9 gene (control group) Individuals with an inactivating mutation in one copy of PCSK9 gene

Concept 42.5: Gas exchange occurs across specialized respiratory surfaces
Gas exchange supplies O2 for cellular respiration and disposes of CO2 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Partial Pressure Gradients in Gas Exchange
A gas diffuses from a region of higher partial pressure to a region of lower partial pressure Partial pressure is the pressure exerted by a particular gas in a mixture of gases © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Coelom Gills Gills Tube foot Parapodium (functions as gill)
Figure 42.22 Coelom Gills Gills Figure Diversity in the structure of gills, external body surfaces that function in gas exchange. Tube foot Parapodium (functions as gill) (a) Marine worm (b) Crayfish (c) Sea star

Countercurrent exchange PO (mm Hg) in water 2
Figure 42.23 O2-poor blood Gill arch O2-rich blood Lamella Blood vessels Gill arch Water flow Operculum Water flow Blood flow Countercurrent exchange Figure The structure and function of fish gills. PO (mm Hg) in water 2 150 120 90 60 30 Gill filaments Net diffusion of O2 140 110 80 50 20 PO (mm Hg) in blood 2

Tracheoles Mitochondria Muscle fiber 2.5 m Body cell Tracheae Air sac
Figure 42.24 Tracheoles Mitochondria Muscle fiber 2.5 m Body cell Tracheae Air sac Tracheole Figure Tracheal systems. Air sacs Trachea Air External opening

Human respiration bioflix
Branch of pulmonary vein (oxygen-rich blood) Branch of pulmonary artery (oxygen-poor blood) Terminal bronchiole Nasal cavity Pharynx Left lung Larynx (Esophagus) Alveoli Trachea 50 m Right lung Capillaries Bronchus Figure The mammalian respiratory system. Bronchiole Diaphragm (Heart) Dense capillary bed enveloping alveoli (SEM)

What causes respiratory distress syndrome?
RESULTS RDS deaths Deaths from other causes 40 30 Surface tension (dynes/cm) 20 10 Figure Inquiry: What causes respiratory distress syndrome? 800 1,600 2,400 3,200 4,000 Body mass of infant (g)

How an Amphibian Breathes
An amphibian such as a frog ventilates its lungs by positive pressure breathing, which forces air down the trachea © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Anterior air sacs Posterior air sacs Airflow Air tubes (parabronchi)
Figure 42.27 Anterior air sacs Posterior air sacs Lungs Airflow Air tubes (parabronchi) in lung 1 mm Lungs Posterior air sacs Anterior air sacs 3 Figure The avian respiratory system. 2 4 1 1 First inhalation 3 Second inhalation 2 First exhalation 4 Second exhalation

How a Mammal Breathes Mammals ventilate their lungs by negative pressure breathing, which pulls air into the lungs Lung volume increases as the rib muscles and diaphragm contract The tidal volume is the volume of air inhaled with each breath © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

1 2 Rib cage expands. Air inhaled. Rib cage gets smaller. Air exhaled.
Figure 42.28 1 2 Rib cage expands. Air inhaled. Rib cage gets smaller. Air exhaled. Lung Figure Negative pressure breathing. Diaphragm

Control of Breathing in Humans
In humans, the main breathing control centers are in two regions of the brain, the medulla oblongata and the pons The medulla regulates the rate and depth of breathing in response to pH changes in the cerebrospinal fluid The medulla adjusts breathing rate and depth to match metabolic demands The pons regulates the tempo © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sensors in the aorta and carotid arteries monitor O2 and CO2 concentrations in the blood
These sensors exert secondary control over breathing © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Sensor/control center: Aorta Cerebrospinal fluid
Figure 42.29 Homeostasis: Blood pH of about 7.4 CO2 level decreases. Stimulus: Rising level of CO2 in tissues lowers blood pH. Response: Rib muscles and diaphragm increase rate and depth of ventilation. Carotid arteries Figure Homeostatic control of breathing. Sensor/control center: Aorta Cerebrospinal fluid Medulla oblongata

Concept 42.7: Adaptations for gas exchange include pigments that bind and transport gases
The metabolic demands of many organisms require that the blood transport large quantities of O2 and CO2 © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Figure 42.30 8 Exhaled air 1 Inhaled air PO 2 Inhaled air PCO 2 2 Alveolar spaces 160 Alveolar epithelial cells Exhaled air CO2 O2 Alveolar capillaries 120 Partial pressure (mm Hg) 7 Pulmonary arteries 3 Pulmonary veins 80 40 6 Systemic veins 4 Systemic arteries Heart 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 (b) Partial pressure of O2 and CO2 at different points in the circulatory system numbered in (a) Figure Loading and unloading of respiratory gases. Systemic capillaries CO2 O2 5 Body tissue (a) The path of respiratory gases in the circulatory system

Coordination of Circulation and Gas Exchange
Blood arriving in the lungs has a low partial pressure of O2 and a high partial pressure of CO2 relative to air in the alveoli In the alveoli, O2 diffuses into the blood and CO2 diffuses into the air In tissue capillaries, partial pressure gradients favor diffusion of O2 into the interstitial fluids and CO2 into the blood © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Respiratory Pigments Respiratory pigments, proteins that transport oxygen, greatly increase the amount of oxygen that blood can carry Arthropods and many molluscs have hemocyanin with copper as the oxygen-binding component Most vertebrates and some invertebrates use hemoglobin In vertebrates, hemoglobin is contained within erythrocytes © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Hemoglobin A single hemoglobin molecule can carry four molecules of O2, one molecule for each iron- containing heme group CO2 produced during cellular respiration lowers blood pH and decreases the affinity of hemoglobin for O2; this is called the Bohr shift © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Iron Heme Hemoglobin Figure 42.UN01
Figure 42.UN01 In-text figure, p. 924 Iron Heme Hemoglobin

O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%) O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%)
Figure 42.31 100 100 O2 unloaded to tissues at rest pH 7.4 80 80 pH 7.2 O2 unloaded to tissues during exercise Hemoglobin retains less O2 at lower pH (higher CO2 concentration) 60 60 O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%) O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%) 40 40 20 20 20 40 60 80 100 20 40 60 80 100 Figure Dissociation curves for hemoglobin at 37°C. PO (mm Hg) Tissues during exercise Tissues at rest Lungs 2 (b) pH and hemoglobin dissociation PO (mm Hg) 2 2 (a) PO and hemoglobin dissociation at pH 7.4

Carbon Dioxide Transport
Hemoglobin also helps transport CO2 and assists in buffering the blood CO2 from respiring cells diffuses into the blood and is transported in blood plasma, bound to hemoglobin, or as bicarbonate ions (HCO3–) Animation: O2 from Blood to Tissues Animation: CO2 from Tissues to Blood Animation: CO2 from Blood to Lungs Animation: O2 from Lungs to Blood © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Animation: O2 from Blood to Tissues Right-click slide / select “Play”

Animation: CO2 from Tissues to Blood Right-click slide / select “Play”

Animation: CO2 from Blood to Lungs Right-click slide / select “Play”

Animation: O2 from Lungs to Blood Right-click slide / select “Play”

Figure 42.32 Carbon dioxide transport in the blood.
Body tissue CO2 transport from tissues CO2 produced Interstitial fluid CO2 Plasma within capillary CO2 Capillary wall CO2 H2O Red blood cell H2CO3 Hemoglobin (Hb) picks up CO2 and H+. Hb Carbonic acid HCO3 Bicarbonate  H+ HCO3 To lungs CO2 transport to lungs HCO3 HCO3  H+ Hemoglobin releases CO2 and H+. Figure Carbon dioxide transport in the blood. H2CO3 Hb H2O CO2 CO2 CO2 CO2 Alveolar space in lung

Respiratory Adaptations of Diving Mammals
Diving mammals have evolutionary adaptations that allow them to perform extraordinary feats For example, Weddell seals in Antarctica can remain underwater for 20 minutes to an hour For example, elephant seals can dive to 1,500 m and remain underwater for 2 hours These animals have a high blood to body volume ratio © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Deep-diving air breathers stockpile O2 and deplete it slowly
Diving mammals can store oxygen in their muscles in myoglobin proteins Diving mammals also conserve oxygen by Changing their buoyancy to glide passively Decreasing blood supply to muscles Deriving ATP in muscles from fermentation once oxygen is depleted © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc.

Exhaled air Inhaled air Alveolar spaces Alveolar epithelial cells CO2
Figure 42.UN02 Exhaled air Inhaled air Alveolar spaces Alveolar epithelial cells CO2 O2 Alveolar capillaries Pulmonary arteries Pulmonary veins Systemic veins Systemic arteries Heart Figure 42.UN02 Summary figure, Concept 42.2 Systemic capillaries CO2 O2 Body tissue

100 Fetus 80 Mother O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%) 60 40 20 20 40 60
Figure 42.UN03 100 Fetus 80 Mother O2 saturation of hemoglobin (%) 60 40 20 Figure 42.UN03 Test Your Understanding, question 11 20 40 60 80 100 PO (mm Hg) 2

Figure 42.UN04 Figure 42.UN04 Appendix A: answer to Test Your Understanding, question 11

Figure 42.1 Figure 42.1 How does a feathery fringe help this animal survive?

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Figure 42.1 Figure 42.1 How does a feathery fringe help this animal survive?

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