1. Point-to-Point Communication

2. 2 Terminal-Host Communication n Components n Terminal n Host (locus of processing) n Transmission line (here, phone line and modem) n Telephone line acts as a point-to-point link Phone Line Modem Terminal Host

3. 3 Terminal Emulation n People Already Have PCs n Host operating systems only work with terminals n Do not want to buy a terminal as well n PCs can emulate (act like) terminals n Only requires software (a communication program) n Turns an expensive PC into a cheap terminal

4. 4 VT100 Terminals n VT100 Emulation Only Needs Software n Communications program n Terminal emulation software n Most Hosts Support VT100 Terminals n Lowest Common Denominator n Slow: maximum speed of 19 kbps, usually slower n Uses inefficient asynchronous ASCII transmission, discussed later n No graphics or even multiple fonts: plain text only n No color

5. 5 Terminal Emulation Software n File Transfer n Transfer whole files with error correction n Upload: from PC to host n Download: from host to PC n Terminal emulation program and host file transfer program must support the same file transfer protocol standard n Kermit n XMODEM, YMODEM n IBM 3270 Terminals

6. 6 Digital Signal (1101) Modem Analog Signal Analog and Digital Transmission Digital Signal (1101) Modem Analog Signal Modulation Demodulation

7. 7 Digital and Binary n Digital Transmission n Can have multiple voltage levels, say 4 n Change to one at start of each bit cycle n If 4, changes can represent 2 bits each: n 00, 01, 10, 11 00 11 01 10 Voltage Level Time

8. 8 Baud Rate and Bit Rate n Baud Rate n Number of times line changes per second n Let baud rate be 4 (4 changes per second) n Let bits per line change be 2 n Bit rate = 8 bits per second n Bit rate = x2 Baud rate in this example 00 11 01 10 One Second

9. 9 Wave Characteristics n Amplitude (power) n Frequency (cycles per second, Hertz) n Wavelength (meters) Amplitude (power) Wavelength (meters) Frequency (Hz) One Second

10. 10 Wave Characteristics n Phase n Fully cycle is 360 degrees n Phase is degrees different from reference wave n Human ears cannot hear. Equipment can Reference Wave 180 degrees out of phase 0o0o 180 o 0 o 90 o 180 o 270 o 0 and rising Highest 0 and falling Lowest

11. 11 Wave Characteristics n Amplitude n Frequency and Wavelength n Not independent n As frequency rises, wavelength falls (Shorter guitar strings produce higher notes) n Their product is constant--the speed of light, sound, etc. n Phase

12. 12 Frequency Modulation Low Frequency (0) High Frequency (1) Frequency Modulation (1011) Wavelength 1 0 1 1 Vary the frequency (wavelength) to represent 1 and 0

13. 13 Amplitude Modulation Low Amplitude (0) High Amplitude (1) Amplitude Modulation (1011) Amplitude (low) Amplitude (high)

14. 14 Phase Modulation In Phase (0) 180 degrees out of phase (1) Frequency Modulation (1011)

15. 15 Complex Modulation High Amplitude Low Amplitude 90 Degrees Out of Phase, High Amplitude In Phase 180 Degrees Out of Phase Vary both amplitude and phase Several values (not just two) on each dimension

16. 16 Modem Standards n Modems at Two Ends Must Communicate n Must follow same standards n Most modem standards set by ITU-T n Multiple category of standards: n Modem speed (modulation) n Error correction and compression n Facsimile n Etc. n n When buying a modem, must check for standard(s) followed in each category

17. 17 Modem Speed Standards n Set by the ITU-T n Govern how modulation is done n Standards for speed governs modulation for data transmission n V.92 56.6 kbps plus quick connect, modem on hold, PCM upstream V.92 n V.90 56.6 kbps V.90 V.90 n V.3428.8 kbps/33.6 kbps n V.32 bis14.4 kbps

18. 18 Modem Speed Standards n Most data modems are also fax modems n V.1414.4 kbps n V.299,600 bps

19. 19 Error Correction and Compression n ITU-T Standards n n V.42Error detection and correction n n V.42 bisData compression (up to 4:1) n n V.44Data compression (20 to 120% more than V.42 bis) V.44 n Independent of speed standards (but V.44 only with V.92) n Microcom Standards n Microcom Network Protocol (MNP) n Both error correction and compression n Several levels n Independent of speed standards

20. 20 Modem Intelligence n Computer Can Send Commands to Modem n Dial a number, including how long to wait, etc. n Called intelligent modems n Hayes Developed the first Command Set n Most modems follow the same command set n We call them “Hayes compatible” n Commands start with “AT” n Other Standards for Fax Modems n Class 1 and Class 2: extensions to Hayes

21. 21 Telephone Bandwidth is Limited n Telephone Transmission n Cuts off sounds below 300 Hertz n Cuts off sounds above about 3,400 Hz n Bandwidth is the difference between the highest and lowest frequencies (3400-300): about 3,100 Hz Sound Loudness Frequency (Hz) 0300340020,000 Bandwidth 3,100 Hz

22. 22 Telephone Bandwidth is Limited n Speed is Limited n Maximum speed is related to bandwidth (Shannon’s Law) n Maximum speed for phone lines for transmission is a little over 30 kbps n So modems can’t get much faster

23. 23 Another Look at Compression n With 4:1 Compression, a V.34 Modem Can Receive Data at 115.2 kbps from the PC n However the ~30 kbps limit of the phone system is not exceeded. Still transmit at 33.6 kbps. 115.2 kbps 33.6 kbps ~35 kbps Maximum Compression in Modem

24. 24 56 kbps Analog Modems n From home, you transmit n Analog-to-Digital Converter (ADC) n Filters your signal to a bandwidth of ~3.1 kHz n This limits you to 33.6 kbps Telephone Network Telephone Network ADC PC V.34 modem 33.6 kbps

25. 25 56 kbps Analog Modems n But ISP Can Connect Digitally n Signal travels through phone system at 56 kbps n At user end, digital-to-analog converter (DAC) n Sends signal to analog modem at wide bandwidth n Modem can receive at 56 kbps Telephone Network Telephone Network DAC PC 56 kbps modem ISP Digital Link 56 kbps

26. 26 56 kbps Modems n What they can do n Send at 33.6 kbps (V.92 with PCM upstream can go up to 48 kbps) n Receive at 56 kbps (V92 with V.44 compression can go up to 120 kbps) n Problems n past: competing standards from Rockwell, U.S. Robotics (V.90 ended them) n present: ISPs must support V.92 (all support V.90) support V.92support V.92 n Users and ISPs n Users V.90 analog modem or V.92 n ISPs V.90 digital modem or V.92

27. 27 56 Kbps Modems n Telephone company n No changes needed, although... n Many not have an internal ADC conversion between ISP and customer (some do) n May not have long transmission line from last switch to the customer premises (local loop) n Not all phone lines to customer premises will support 56 kbps modems n Even when they do, speeds may only be 40-50 kbps

28. 28 Half-Duplex Transmission n Sender and receiver must take turns sending n Like an old one-lane road n No interruption for error handling or flow control ABAB Time 1 Only one side May communicate A does Time 2 Only one side May communicate B does

29. 29 Full-Duplex Transmission n Both Sides May Transmit Simultaneously n Needed for error correction, flow control n Now almost universal in modem communication ABAB Time 1 Both sides may communicate Both do Time 2 Both sides may communicate A does

30. 30 Asynchronous Transmission n ASCII Character Set n 7-bit is the standard n 8-bit extended ASCII is popular n Bits transmitted backward n Parity for Error Detection n Only for 7-bit ASCII n Start/Stop Bits for Framing n Each frame is exactly 10 bits long

31. 31 Asynchronous Transmission n ASCII Character Set n Created for sending printed American text n Each character is a 7-bit code (e.g., 1010101) n This allows 2^7 or 128 possible characters n Printing characters: A, a, !, <, %, etc. n Control codes: XOFF tells other side to pause

32. 32 Asynchronous Transmission n 8-bit ASCII n Used in PCs: 8 bits per character (10101010) n Used for word processing format codes n Used in graphics that stores data in bytes

33. 33 PC Serial Port n Bit Transmission of ASCII Characters n Transmits last bit first n If you wish to send 1111000, n The serial port transmits 0001111

34. 34 Parity n For 7-bit ASCII Only (No Parity = 8-bit ASCII) n Transmit an 8th bit per character n Even parity: sum of data and parity bits is even n To send 1110000 (odd), send 00001111 n To send 1111000 (even), send 00011110 n Odd parity: sum is odd n If error is detected, the character is simply discarded. No way to ask for retransmission

35. 35 Start and Stop Bits n When the Data Line is at Rest n It is kept in the “1” state n So “11110000” would look like 111111100001111 n “00001111” would also look like 11111100001111 n How can you tell where a character begins? n Solution n Add a start bit (always 0) to change the line state n End with a stop bit (always 1) to guarantee at least a one-bit rest (1) against which to detect the next start bit (0)

36. 36 The Final Asynchronous Frame n Always 10 bits n Start, 7 data bits, parity, stop, or n Start, 8 data bits, stop 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 StartParity Stop7-bit ASCII Character 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1 1 1 Start Stop 8-bit ASCII Character

37. 37 Flow Control n Ask the Other Device to Pause (or Slow Down) n ASCII n In asynch, usually done by sending ASCII control codes n XOFF tells other side to pause n XON tells the other device to resume n Serial Port n Signals on the pins control when PC, modem can transmit

38. 38 3-38 Signal and Propagation A signal is a disturbance in the media that propagates (travels) down the transmission medium to the receiver If propagation effects are too large, the receiver will not be able to read the received signal

39. 39 3-39 Binary-Encoded Data n Computers store and process data in binary representations n Binary means “two” n There are only ones and zeros n Called bits 1101010110001110101100111

40. 40 3-40 Binary-Encoded Data n Non-Binary Data Must Be Encoded into Binary n Text n Integers (whole numbers) n Decimal numbers n Alternatives (North, South, East, or West, etc.) n Graphics n Human voice n etc. Hello11011001…

41. 41 Layering Perspective n Where is binary data encoding done? n It is done at the application layer, not at the physical layer. n Where is signaling done n It is done at the physical layer 3-41

42. 42 Signaling

43. 43 3-43 On/Off Signaling On/off signaling is used in optical fiber The light is turned on during a clock cycle for a 1 The light is turned off during a clock cycle for a 0 There are two signaling states—on and off This is called binary signaling This is a simple type of signaling

44. 44 3-44 Binary Voltage Signaling in 232 Serial Ports The high state (0) is anything from +3 to +15 volts The low state (1) is anything from -3 to -15 volts 1

45. 45 3-45 Relative Immunity to Errors in Binary Signaling Binary signaling gives some immunity to errors. This is one of its major attractions.

46. 46 UTP Propagation Unshielded Twisted Pair wiring

47. 47 3-47 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Wiring n UTP Characteristics n Inexpensive and to purchase and install n Dominates media for access links between computers and the nearest switch

48. 48 3-48 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Wiring n Standards n The TIA/EIA-568 standard governs UTP wiring in the United States n In Europe, the comparable standard is ISO/IEC 11801

49. 49 3-49 4-Pair UTP Cord with RJ45 Connector 3. 8-pin RJ-45 Connector 2. 8 Wires organized as 4 twisted pairs Industry standard pen 1. UTP cord

50. 50 3-50 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Wiring n Cord Organization n A length of UTP wiring is a cord n Each cord has eight copper wires n Each wire is covered with dielectric (nonconducting) insulation n The wires are organized as four pairs n Each pair’s two wires are twisted around each other several times per inch n There is an outer plastic jacket that encloses the four pairs

51. 51 3-51 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP) Wiring n Connector n RJ-45 connector is the standard connector n Plugs into an RJ-45 jack in a NIC, switch, or wall jack RJ-45 Jack RJ-45 Jack 8-pin RJ-45 connectors

52. 52 3-52 Attenuation and Noise Power Distance 3. Noise Floor (Average Noise level) 2. Noise 4. Noise Spike 1. Signal 2. Signal- to-Noise Ratio (SNR ) 5. Error 1.The signal attenuates (falls in power) as it propagates 2.There is noise (random energy) in the wire that adds to the signal 3.The average noise level is called the noise floor 4.Noise is random. Occasionally, there will be large noise spikes 5.Noise spikes as large as the signal cause errors 6.You want to keep the signal-to-noise ratio high

53. 53 3-53 Limiting UTP Cord Length n Limit UTP cord length to 100 meters n This keeps the signal-to-noise ration (SNR) high n This makes attenuation and noise problems negligible n Note that limiting cord lengths limits BOTH noise and attenuation problems 100 Meters Maximum Cord Length

54. 54 3-54 UTP Wiring n Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) n Electromagnetic interference is electromagnetic energy from outside sources that adds to the signal n From fluorescent lights, electrical motors, microwave ovens, etc. n The problem is that UTP cords are like long radio antennas n They pick up EMI energy nicely n When they carry signals, they also send EMI energy out from themselves

55. 55 3-55 Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) and Twisting Interference on the Two Halves of a Twist Cancels Out Twisted Wire Electromagnetic Interference (EMI) UTP is twisted specifically to reduce EMI

56. 56 3-56 Crosstalk Interference and Terminal Crosstalk Interference Untwisted at Ends Signal Terminal Crosstalk Interference Crosstalk Interference Terminal crosstalk interference normally is the biggest EMI problem for UTP

57. 57 3-57 Interference Hierarchy n EMI is any interference n Signals in adjacent pairs interfere with one another (crosstalk interference). This is a specific type of EMI n Crosstalk interference is worst at the ends, where the wires are untwisted. This is terminal crosstalk interference—a specific type of crosstalk EMI EMI Crosstalk Interference Terminal Crosstalk Interference

58. 58 3-58 Terminal Crosstalk Interference n Terminal crosstalk interference dominates interference in UTP n Terminal crosstalk interference is limited to an acceptable level by not untwisting wires more than a half inch (1.25 cm) at each end of the cord to fit into the RJ-45 connector n This reduces terminal crosstalk interference to a negligible level. 1.25 cm or 0.5 inches

59. 59 Shielded Twisted Pair Wiring (STP) n We have been talking about unshielded twisted pair wiring. n Is there a shielded twisted pair wiring? n Yes. It has a metal mesh shield around each pair to reduce cross-talk interference n It also has a metal mesh shield around the four pairs to reduce external EMI n It is no longer used extensively because UTP, which is much less expensive, was found to be good enough for normal environments n However, we will see that Cat 7 wiring uses STP 3-59

60. 60 3-60 UTP Limitations n Limit cords to 100 meters n Limits BOTH noise AND attenuation problems to an acceptable level n Do not untwist wires more than 1.25 cm (a half inch) when placing them in RJ-45 connectors n Limits terminal crosstalk interference to an acceptable level n Neither completely eliminates the problems but they usually reduce the problems to negligible levels 2

61. 61 3-61 3-18: Serial Versus Parallel Transmission

62. 62 Optical Fiber Transmission Light through Glass Spans Longer Distances than UTP

63. 63 3-63 Optical Fiber Transceiver and Strand An optical fiber strand has a thin glass core This core is 8.3, 50, or 62.5 microns in diameter This glass core is surrounded by a tubular glass cladding The outer diameter of the cladding is 125 microns, regardless of the core’s diameter The transceiver injects laser light into the core

64. 64 3-64 Optical Fiber Transceiver and Strand When a light wave ray hits the core/cladding boundary, there is perfect internal reflection. There is no signal loss

65. 65 3-65 Roles of UTP and Optical Fiber in LANs

66. 66 3-66 Two-Strand Full-Duplex Optical Fiber Cord with SC and ST Connectors A fiber cord has two-fiber strands for full-duplex (two-way) transmission SC Connectors ST Connectors Two Strands Cord

67. 67 3-67 Full-Duplex Optical Fiber Cord with SC and ST Connectors SC Connector (push and click) ST Connector (bayonet connectors: push and click) In contrast to UTP, which always uses RJ-45 connectors, there are several optical fiber connector types SC and ST are the most popular

68. 68 3-68 Optical Fiber Strand In optical fiber transmission, light is expressed in nanometers. The transceiver transmits at 850 nm, 1,310 nm, or 1,550 nm Shorter-wavelength (850 nm) transceivers are less expensive Longer-wavelength (1,310 or 1,550 nm) light travels farther for a given speed For LAN fiber, 850 nm provides sufficient distance and dominates

69. 69 3-69 Multimode Fiber and Single-Mode Fiber Multimode fiber has a thick core (50 or 62.5 microns in diameter) Light can only enter the core at certain angles, called modes Modes traveling straight through arrive faster than modes that bounce against the cladding several times

70. 70 Radio Propagation

71. 71 3-71 Radio Propagation Radio signals also propagate as waves. As noted earlier, radio waves are measured in hertz (Hz), which is a measure of frequency. Radio usually operates in the MHz and GHz range.

72. 72 3-72 Omnidirectional and Dish Antennas

73. 73 3-73 Wireless Propagation Problems UTP and optical fiber propagation are fairly predictable. However, radio suffers from many propagation effects. This makes radio transmission difficult to manage.

74. 74 Topology Network topology is the physical arrangement of a network’s computers, switches, routers, and transmission lines It is a physical layer concept: l Point-to-point l Star l Bus l Ring