0. 7
Motivation Concepts
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

1. Topics we will cover Chapter 7 Defining motivation
Hierarchy of needs theory
Theory X and Y
Goal setting theory
Includes implementation
Self-efficacy theory
Equity theory/Organizational justice
Just definition and exhibit 7-8 (definitions covered in this exhibit)
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall

2. Defining Motivation
The result of the interaction between the individual and the situation.
The processes that account for an individual’s intensity, direction, and persistence of effort toward attaining a goal – specifically, an organizational goal.
Three key elements:
Intensity – how hard a person tries
Direction – effort that is channeled toward, and
consistent with, organizational goals
Persistence – how long a person can maintain effort
It is easy to see that some individuals are more motivated than others. However, the reasons for that motivation are more difficult to determine. When defining motivation it is important to look at the interaction between the individual and the situation. There are three key elements that help us define motivation. The first is intensity or how hard the person tries to accomplish the task. The second element is direction and that is the effort that is channeled toward organizational goals. The final element is persistency or how long a person can maintain the effort.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

3. Early Theories of Motivation
These early theories may not be valid, but they do form the basis for contemporary theories and are still used by practicing managers.
Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs Theory
McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
McClelland’s Theory of Needs
There are number of theories of motivation that help us gain a better understanding of the concept. Some of the earlier theories are not entirely valid anymore but they are still used by many managers.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

4. Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs
There is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is substantially satisfied, the next need becomes dominant.
Assumptions
Individuals cannot move to the next higher level until all needs at the current (lower) level are satisfied
Must move in hierarchical order
Self-Actualization
Esteem
Social
Safety
Physiological
Higher Order
Internal
Lower Order
External
The first theory was developed by Abraham Maslow in the 1950’s. His theory states that with every individual there is a hierarchy of five needs. As each need is met or satisfied, the next need becomes dominant. His theory posits that individuals are stuck in their existing need level until it is satisfied and then they can move on to the next level. For example, until their safety needs are met, they will not be able to move on to the social level.
See E X H I B I T 7-1
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

5. McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y
Two distinct views of human beings: Theory X (basically negative) and Theory Y (positive).
Managers used a set of assumptions based on their view
The assumptions molded their behavior toward employees
No empirical evidence to support this theory.
Theory X
Workers have little ambition
Dislike work
Avoid responsibility
Theory Y
Workers are self-directed
Enjoy work
Accept responsibility
Douglas McGregor added to the motivation work done in the 1950’s and developed the theory called Theory X, Theory Y. He believed that there are two distinct views of human beings that managers hold. The Theory X view is basically negative and believes that workers have little ambition, dislike work, and avoid responsibility. The Theory Y view is in contrast to X and believes that workers tend to be self-directed, enjoy work, and accept responsibility. Managers will modify their behavior toward employees based on what view they hold about them.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

6. Implementation: Management by Objectives
MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting.
Goals must be:
Tangible
Verifiable
Measurable
Corporate goals are broken down into smaller, more specific goals at each level of organization.
Four common ingredients to MBO programs:
Goal specificity
Participative decision making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
An implementation of the goal-setting theory is Management by Objectives, better known as MBO. MBO is a systematic way to utilize goal-setting theory, in which goals are set jointly by managers and employees. The goals must be tangible, verifiable, and measurable in order to be effective. The manager helps to break down the organizational goals into smaller more specific goals for the employee. In order for MBO to be effective, the goals must be specific, the employees must participate in the goal setting, there must be a defined time period, and feedback must be incorporated into the process.
See E X H I B I T 7-5
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

7. Bandura’s Self-Efficacy Theory or social learning
An individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task.
Higher efficacy is related to:
Greater confidence
Greater persistence in the face of difficulties
Better response to negative feedback (work harder)
Self-efficacy complements Goal-Setting Theory
Given Hard Goal
Higher Self-Set Goal
Increased Confidence
Higher Performance
Another theory of motivation is the self-efficacy theory developed by Albert Bandura. This theory is based on an individual’s belief that he or she is capable of performing a task. This theory is a complement to the goal-setting theory as it incorporates goals into the process. Higher efficacy is related to greater confidence, greater persistence in the face of difficulties, and responding to negative feedback with working harder, not shutting down.
See E X H I B I T 7-6
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

8. Increasing Self-Efficacy
Enactive mastery
Most important source of efficacy
Gaining relevant experience with task or job
“Practice makes perfect”
Vicarious modeling
Increasing confidence by watching others perform the task
Most effective when observer sees the model to be similar to him- or herself
Verbal persuasion
Motivation through verbal conviction
Pygmalion and Galatea effects - self-fulfilling prophecies
Arousal
Getting “psyched up” – emotionally aroused – to complete task
Can hurt performance if emotion is not a component of the task
Self-efficacy can be increased in several ways. The first is increasing your mastery of a task/skill. Another way is to model your actions after someone else who performs the task effectively and applying their actions to your own. The final methods to increase self-efficacy is to receive verbal persuasion through others as well as getting excited about completing the task.
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

9. Adams’ Equity Theory
Individuals compare their jobs inputs and outcomes with those of others and then respond to eliminate inequities
Adam’s equity theory utilizes perception theory that we looked at in previous chapters. The idea is that employees compare their ratios of outcomes to inputs of others they see as relevant. When they see the ratios as equal, there is a perceived state of equity and no tension arises. However, when they perceive the ratios to be unequal, they may experience anger or guilt, depending on the result of the equity analysis, and then tension can arise. This tension can motivate people to act in a way to bring the situation into a more equitable state.
See E X H I B I T 7-7
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.

10. Justice and Equity Theory
Organizational Justice
Distributive Justice
Fairness of outcome
Procedural Justice
Fairness of outcome process
Interactional Justice
Being treated with dignity and respect
The justice and equity theory is based on perceived equity in the workplace. For organizational justice to be perceived, there must be distributive justice, procedural justice, and interactional justice. Distributive justice is the fairness in which the outcomes are distributed or experienced. The procedural justice focuses not on the outcomes but on the process itself. Interactional justice focuses on how you are treated during the process.
Overall perception of what is fair in the workplace.
See E X H I B I T 7-8
Copyright © 2011 Pearson Education, Inc. publishing as Prentice Hall
(c) 2008 Prentice-Hall, All rights reserved.