1. Organic Chemistry The Chemistry of Carbon

2. A. Carbons Versatility 1.Tetravalent - can form four bonds with other elements 2.May form double bonds and triple bonds. 3.Bond with itself forming Chains of various lengths 4.The chains may branch. 5.May form rings

5. B. Characteristics of Organic Compound 1.Carbon backbones 2.Composed of single units called monomers 3.Monomers are joined in a condensation reaction that usually occurs between the –OH groups of two monomers. H 2 O is removed linking the two monomers with an oxygen bridgecondensation reaction 4.Polymers- many joined monomers 5.Polymers are broken down in Hydrolysis

6. II. 4 Major Classes of Organic Compounds

7. A. Carbohydrates

8. 1. Functions of Carbohydrates a)Quick energy- sugar, glycogen and starch b)Structure- cellulose, chitin

9. 2. Structure of Carbohydrate a)Glucose(C 6 H 12 O 6 ) and Fructose (C 6 H 12 O 6 ) are single sugars called monosaccharides b)Isomers- compounds with the same molecular formula but different structures

10. C) Disaccharide- two monosaccharides joined in a condensation reaction. An example is sucrose. D) Polysaccharides- long chains of sugars 1) Starch- storage form of carbohydrates in plants (1-4ά) 2) Glycogen- storage form of carbohydrate in animals (1-4ά) 3) Cellulose- structural polysaccharide in plants (1-4β)Cellulose

11. B. Lipids Animal FatPlant OilsWaxes

12. 1. Functions a)Long term energy storage b)Structure- form membranes c)Insulation

13. 2. Structure- 1 glycerol with fatty acid chainsglycerol

14. 3. Types of Lipids a) Saturated fat- each carbon is bonded with two hydrogens in the fatty acid chain 1)Animal fats 2)Solid at room temperature 3)Bad for you. (Cause arteriosclerosis)

15. b) Unsaturated Fat- contains double bond between some of the carbons 1.Plant oils 2.Liquid at room temperature 3.Better for you. More easily absorbed

16. c. Phospholipid- forms the membrane around cells

17. C. Proteins

18. 1 Functions: a)Structure Example: collegen b)Transport Example: hemoglobinhemoglobin c)Fight Disease Example: antibodiesantibodies d)Communication Ex: Hormones e)Movement Ex: actin and myosinmyosin f)Control Chemical Reactions Example: enzymesenzymes

19. 2. Structure- Shaped to perform function a)Proteins are made of monomers called amino acids b) Amino acid structure: Amino group Acid group R group c) All amino acids have the same amino and acid groups but different r groups d) Peptide bonds join amino acids in condensation reactions forming a dipeptidedipeptide

20. Amino Acids with Hydrophobic Side Groups Note the methyl groups at the bottom of the chains

21. Amino Acids with Hydrophilic Side Groups Note the charged or polar groups at the bottom of the chains

22. And Some Amino Acids are in Between Hydrophobic and Hydrophilic regions influence protein shape.protein shape

23. 3. Levels of Protein Structure a)1 st Level: Linear sequence of amino acids b)2 nd Level: Spiraling and pleating c)3 rd Level: Bending and folding d)4 th Level: Intertwining of multiple polypeptides polypeptides

24. 4. Proteins are able to function because of their complex shape 5. Enzymes Function (Enzymes control chemical reactions) E + S  E/S  E + P EnzymeSubstrate Enzyme- substrate complex EnzymeProduct a) Enzymes are specific to a substrate (like a lock and key) b)Enzymes are named by adding “ase” to the name of the substrate

25. Enzyme with empty active sites Substrate (Sucrose) Substrate binds with the enzyme forming an enzyme-substrate complex Hydrolysis occurs Substrate is converted to product and the enzyme is not used up. The enzyme’s active sites are free to accept another substrate molecule The Catalytic Cycle of Enzymes

26. Catalytic Cycle a) The enzyme binds with the substrate at the active site. Induced fit stresses key bondsInduced fit b) The substrate is converted to product

27. Factors Affecting Enzyme Activity Adding more substrate will have no affect on the rate of the reaction passed the SATURATION POINT Low CONCENTRATION High RATERATE 1. Substrate Concentration

28. 2. Temperature Human enzymes have an optimal temperature of 37º Celsius. Higher temperatures cause the enzymes to denature. 0 10 20 30 40 50 50 70 o C RATERATE 37 o C

29. 3. pH Most enzymes have an optimal pH of 7. Some enzymes function more effectively in acidic or basic conditions. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 RATERATE

30. Nucleic Acids

31. D. Nucleic Acids- large complex molecules formed of smaller smaller units called nucleotidesNucleic Acids- 1. Nucleic acid structure A)Nucleotide consists of a sugar, a phosphate group and a nitrogen base B)Sugars: 1) Ribose in RNA 2) Deoxyribose in DNA C) Bases: 1) Purines (2 rings) Adenine & GuaninePurines 2) Pyrimidines (1 ring) cytosine & ThyminePyrimidines

32. Nucleic Acids 2.DNA structure is a double helix with the base pairing of Thymine with Adenine and Cytosine with Guanine.double helix 3.RNA structure is a single spiral with Uracil replacing Thymine. RNA Carries the genetic code from the nucleus to the ribosome.

33. 4. Nucleic Acid Functions a)DNA and RNA carry the genetic code. I.e. The information for constructing proteins b)Other related nucleotides like Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP) supplies energy to the cell c)Many other nucleotides and dinucleotides are involved in electron transport. –GTP, UTP, CTP –dGTP, dATP, dCTP, dTTP –AMP, NAD+, NADP, FAD