1. Part 1: E-Democracy and Participation – The Digital Divide
Part 2: E-Democracy and Participation – Transparency and Accountability
Class 2 – March 31, 2012

2. Digital Divide Concepts
Certain segments of the population are left behind by digital technology – haves and have-nots
Digital Inclusion
Concept to allow computer and internet access to broader segment of population
Generally, this is the opposite of Digital Divide
Technology Adoption/ Penetration
Concept that measures the adoption or penetration of a technology by the population
E.g. Mobile phones have penetrated 66% of the American population

3. Tracking digital divide and technology adoption
National Telecommunications and Information Administration
Reports on Internet and Broadband penetration
Web address:
Pew Internet Reports
Pew Internet, a nonprofit, explores the impact of the internet on children, families, communities, the work place, schools, health care and civic/political life.
Web address:
Broadband use by state – varies from low of 46.4 percent to high of 73.8 percent (NTIA)
Internet use by state – varies from low of 62.7 percent to high of 80.3 percent (NTIA)

4. Why is closing the divide important?
Economic equality
Vital information available online
Social welfare services
Social mobility
Education and career mobility
Economic growth
Infrastructure development – primarily for less developed nations
Democracy – our primary consideration in this class

5. Tracking digital divide and technology adoption

6. Tracking digital divide and technology adoption

7. Tracking digital divide and technology adoption

8. Tracking digital divide and technology adoption

9. Measures of Digital Divide
Dichotomous measures
Racial/ ethnicity: Differences between racial/ ethnic groups in their access to IT
Regional: Differences between regions (e.g. rural/ urban) in their access to IT
Gender: Differences between men and women in their use of IT
Age: Differences between old and younger populations in their IT use
Income: Differences in internet adoption due to household income

10. Measures of Digital Divide
Continuous
Cost: Differences in IT use due to costs (equipment, infrastructure)
Convenience: Differences in IT use due to availability (e.g. home, work, Internet cafes, libraries, schools)
Speed: Differences in IT use due to bandwidth
Time: Differences in IT use based on the time of the day
Skill
Competency: Differences in IT use due to skills of people

11. Digital Divide by Race/ Ethnicity
Early research linked race and ethnicity to holding less favorable attitudes toward and having less experience with computing.
Sharp racial and income disparities were noted as technology was introduced to schools in the 1980s. These disparities began to diminish by the 1990s.
2000 Jupiter Communications survey of 30,000 households showed 60% more white households were online than African-American.
Digital divide is significant for African Americans. Broadband adoption was 43% in 2008, lagging far behind Whites.
Digital divide between Whites and Hispanics is not significant.

12. Digital Divide by Race/ Ethnicity
Broadband penetration by race/ ethnicity,
2005
2006
2007
2008
White
31%
42%
48%
57%
African-American
14%
40%
43%
Hispanic
28%
41%
47%
56%
Source: Pew Internet, 2008, Home Broadband Adoption 2008

13. Digital Divide by Region
Suburban residents are the most users of Internet (60% in 2008, with significant increase over the years)
Rural Americans are the lowest users, with 38% in 2008
However, use by rural Americans has been increasing very fast

14. Digital Divide by Region
Broadband penetration by Region,
2005
2006
2007
2008
Urban 31 44 52 57
Suburban 33 46 49 60
Rural 18 25 38
Source: Pew Internet, 2008, Home Broadband Adoption 2008

15. Digital Divide by Gender
Cooper and Weaver (2003) found that males enjoy using the computer more than females, have less anxiety, high sense of competency, enroll in more classes, and select more IT careers
Computing history however includes notable contributions by females.
Gender bias has been demonstrated in computer advertising.
Current studies indicate that as computing has become more universal, the gap may lessen and disappear. However this position has its critics. There is a persisting gender gap in the IT profession.
Public policy implication
Gender bias in IT profession

16. Digital Divide by Age
Over 50% of the adult internet population is between 18 and 44 years old.
However, larger percentages of older generations are online now than in the past, and they are doing more activities online.
Contrary to the popular image, internet users in Generation Y [i.e yrs old] do not dominate every aspect of online life.
Generation X [i.e yrs old] is the most likely group to bank, shop, and look for health information online. Boomers are just as likely as Generation Y to make travel reservations online.

17. Digital Divide by Age
Overall, there is a lag in the actual use of computers by seniors [i.e. silent generation, over 64]
Yet, even seniors are also becoming competitive when it comes to .
Public policy implication
Digital divide is very pronounced for the aged
Sole reliance on the Internet would be biased and might be considered a form of age discrimination

18. Digital Divide by Age

19. Digital Divide by Age
Source: Pew Internet, 2009, Generations Online in 2009

20. Digital divide by Income
Broadband penetration is very low among low-income Americans (households with income $20,000 or below) [about 25% in 2008].
Broadband penetration levels is nearing saturation among upper-income Americans: (households with income $100,000 or above) [about 85% in 2008].
Public policy implication:
digital divide is real for lowest income populations
Internet is not likely to be successful in communication with this group or in delivery of services to them
Source: Pew Internet, 2008, Home Broadband Adoption 2008

21. Some Digital Divide Updates - 2010
Internet Use
Men – 74%; Women – 74%
Race / Ethnicity
White, non-Hispanic – 76%
Black, non-Hispanic – 70%
Hispanic, English- and Spanish- Speaking – 64%
Age
18-29 – 93%
30-49 – 81%
50-64 – 70% %

22. Some Digital Divide Updates - 2010
Household Income
Less than $30,000 – 60%
$30,000 - $49,999 – 76%
$50,000 - $74,999 – 83%
$75,000 + – 94%
Educational Attainment
Less than high school – 39%
High School – 63%
Some College – 87%
College %
Community Type
Urban – 74%
Suburban – 77%
Rural – 70%
Source of all 2010 updates:

23. Adult social networking
The share of adult internet users who have a profile on an online social network site has more than quadrupled in the past four years -- from 8% in 2005 to 35% in 2009.
While media coverage and policy attention focus heavily on how children and young adults use social network sites, adults still make up the bulk of the users of these websites.
Still, younger online adults are much more likely than their older counterparts to use social networks, with 75% of adults using these networks, compared to just 7% of adults 65 and older. At its core, use of online social networks is still a phenomenon of the young.

24. Adult social networking
Overall, personal use of social networks seems to be more prevalent than professional use of networks, both in the orientation of the networks that adults choose to use as well as the reasons they give for using the applications. Most adults, like teens, are using online social networks to connect with people they already know.
When users do use social networks for professional and personal reasons, they will often maintain multiple profiles, generally on different sites.
Most, but not all adult social network users are privacy conscious; 60% of adult social network users restrict access to their profiles so that only their friends can see it, and 58% of adult social network users restrict access to certain content within their profile.
Source: Pew Internet, 2009, Adults and Social Network Websites

25. Digital Divide Summary
IT has a great potential for e-government.
However, public policy has to address digital divide and encourage more digital inclusion.
Public managers must be concerned with the digital divide in order to ensure equitable access, which is a Constitutional obligation
Bias and inequity needs to be addressed.
Certain populations are not yet reached in sufficient numbers to claim that bias and the digital divide is a thing of the past.

26. Digital Divide Summary
Beyond Access
Access to IT equipment alone will do little to change people’s lives. Gaps in IT and usage skills remain.
Digital citizenship requires developing computer skills
Continuing education efforts in public schools will lessen the divide, but public managers must still cope with discrimination issues associated with the digital divide.
To ultimately remedy information inequity, organizational development, professional development, and social change are needed. Market forces can partially accomplish this, but government intervention will be necessary.
In order to build information capital, investment in policies to enhance IT skill and usage must be in place. This issue is ultimately tied to the literacy issue.

27. Digital Divide Summary
Public Policy to address Digital Divide
E-Rate program
Part of Telecommunications Act of collects funds from customers of telephone and telecommunication services for use to provide Internet infrastructure to schools and libraries
The success of this program in providing infrastructure to schools and libraries led the Bush administration in 2003 to declare that the digital divide had been largely eliminated

28. Digital Divide Brainstorming Session
Assuming the three major problems related to the digital divide are:
Access to hardware,
Access to broadband, and
Training and technical skills
What can we do to end to end the digital divide within the United States once and for all?

29. Group 1 Hardware: Broadband Training
Contract where provider gives free laptop (entry level) for long-term contract.
Program to give needy refurbished computers for free.
Broadband
Discounts to needy families – proof of need
Public networks – more WIFI
Training
Incentives to companies to provide training
Library training sessions – nonprofit orgs

30. Group 2-2
Develop a very simple-user friendly computer system. Maximum of two to three programs consisting of internet explorer, MS Word, or another similar MS Office program.
Develop a call center for all U.S. users that is available 24/7 for inquiries on computer issues, internet troubleshooting, and any other issue that is related.

31. Group 3
Web TV based system – connect through public WIFI – government-assisted TV channel
“County store” computer donations of hardware
Broadband tethering through government phones
After school programs for training – community service hours – adult education

32. Group 4
Refurbish old laptops and provide to economically needy. Incentives to businesses to provide.
Government provides incentives to companies to expand satellite technology to areas with limited accessibility.

33. Group 5
Tax incentives to individuals and businesses to donate unused hardware
Use public schools and tech schools to upgrade computers
Use students at schools for training. Community service requirements for high school students and internships for college students. At schools and libraries.

34. Part 2: E-Democracy and Participation – Transparency and Accountability
Class 2 – March 31, 2012

35. Transparency and Accountability
Transparency refers to the openness of the decision-making process
Public access to information
Fairness in decision making
Laws need to guarantee transparent decision making
Accountability
Accountability refers to taking responsibility in decision-making process
Public oversight of decision making
Justification by decision makers
Enforcement through rewards and punishment
Transparency and accountability are often inter-related, and talked about in the same breath

36. Why Transparency & Accountability?
Good governance requires both transparency and accountability
Decisions are not based on biased private lobbying interests
Decisions not influenced by monetary gains (e.g. bribery)
Decisions are not taken secretly to systematically harm certain sections of population (e.g. minorities)
The Open Society and Its Enemies (Karl Popper, 1945)
Critic of totalitarianism in all forms – fascist or communist.
Advocated that open societies are better able to adapt to change and new technologies.
“Who should rule?” (Plato) vs. “How do we arrange our institutions to prevent rulers (whether individuals or majorities) doing too much damage?”

37. Why Transparency & Accountability?
Secrecy: The American Experience (Moynihan, 2003)
A culture of openness in decision-making is essential
Believes there would have been no McCarthy Era or Cold War had the government been more transparent about US/Soviet relations
Daniel Patrick Moynihan, U.S. Senator from New York 1976 to Died 2003.

38. IT Opportunities for T & A
IT broadens public access to information
IT can allow broader participation in rule making
Americans can provide comments and submissions on federal regulations through
IT allows citizen publicizing complaints more easily
Praja, a nonprofit in Mumbai, India has an online complaint system about public officials [see: ]

39. IT Opportunities for T & A
IT enables tracking the decision making processes
s, videos, other audio-video and written documents are permanent records that can be accessed more easily, increasing transparency and accountability
Recall YouTube video of Virginia Senator George Allen calling a person macaca cost him his campaign for presidency; s of public officials are public records
IT enables more watchdogs
Many government and political blogging sites track the performance of government and elected officials
Nonprofit watchdogs
Sunlight Foundation [
Govtrack [
Citizens for Responsibility and Ethics in Washington (CREW):

40. IT Opportunities for T & A
Government information sources
USAspending: [President Obama’s renewed launch for transparency, which allows public access to budget data, allowing public access to data through Advanced Programming Interface (API)]
Note regarding Advanced Programming Interface (API):
Allows you to access data from a desktop application or from another website, i.e. it is an interface that is implemented by USAspending.gov that enables it to interface with other software your software. So for instance, if you wanted to provide certain types of government data on a website you manage, for example, contracts awarded to Florida companies, you would use the API to pull the data to your application hosted on your website.

41. Laws Enabling T&A
Freedom of Information Act, 1966 [Electronic Freedom of Information amendment (1996)]
Establishes the public's right to obtain information from federal government agencies [does not create a right of access to records held by Congress, the courts, parts of the executive office of the President that function solely to advise and assist the President, or by state or local government agencies]
Agencies may withhold information pursuant to nine exemptions and three exclusions contained in the statute
EFOIA expanded FOIA to include electronic formats such as databases, , personal computers, diskettes and CD-ROMs

42. Laws Enabling T&A FOIA Exemptions:
Exemption (b)(1) - National Security Information
Exemption (b)(2) - Internal Personnel Rules and Practices - "High" (b)(2) - Substantial internal matters, disclosure would risk circumvention of a legal requirement - "Low" (b)(2) - Internal matters that are essentially trivial in nature.
Exemption (b)(3) - Information exempt under other laws
Exemption (b)(4) - Confidential Business Information
Exemption (b)(5) - Inter or intra agency communication that is subject to deliberative process, litigation, and other privileges
Exemption (b)(6) - Personal Privacy
Exemption (b)(7) - Law Enforcement Records that implicate one of 6 enumerated concerns
Exemption (b)(8) - Financial Institutions
Exemption (b)(9) - Geological Information

43. States have their own public access laws
Florida Sunshine Act
See
And

44. Information access obstacles: Security
National security has long been used as a reason to withhold certain government information.
At the federal level in 2003, over 14 million decisions were made to classify documents or files
Over 5,000 s vanished from White House computer servers between March 2003 and October 2005
Homeland Security Act limited FOIA (Impact of 9/11 incident)
Protection of infrastructure and information surrounding it [Critical Infrastructure Information Regulations, to protect nuclear, transport and defense facilities]
Environmental information
Surveillance and security of information

45. Information access obstacles: Security
Effects of the Patriot Act on FOIA and governmental transparency
Civil libertarians complain that since the passage of the Patriot Act, abuses in classification of information are more difficult to investigate
More burden on the public to “prove” they have a legitimate need to see the document.
“Sensitive but unclassified” markings by agencies. Many different non-standard (between agencies) classifications of sensitive documents that become de facto exemptions determined solely by the agency.

46. Information access obstacles: Security
Current laws have reversed the FOIA presumption of disclosure. Public information has been framed as a blueprint for terrorism, so secrecy has become the default.
Does secrecy always make society safer? Or can it make society less safe because we know less about how to protect ourselves?
“The federal government is establishing new state-based databases for law enforcement and homeland security. Information held by state and local governments is subject to state open government and privacy laws. However, “homeland security” has been invoked to reduce transparency and limit privacy rights through:
Secret agreements imposed by the federal government on state government; and
Federal pressure to roll back state sunshine and privacy laws.”
Source:

47. Information access obstacles: Disability
Website accessibility is measured by
assessing multilingual access
reading simplicity
reading comprehension
accessibility for those with disabilities (visual and auditory primarily)
See (for government web designers)
Americans with Disabilities Act (1990)
Title IV Mandated that government telecom services be disability-compliant

48. Information access obstacles: Disability
Telecommunications Act (1996) and Rehabilitation Act Amendments (1998)
The Department of Justice provides detailed guidelines for public managers to create disability-compliant websites.
Public managers are also advised to include disability advocacy groups in these efforts.
Section 508 of ADA requires that agencies give disabled employees and members of the public access to information that is comparable to the access available to others [ ]
ADA – telecommunications companies to provide functionally equivalent services for those with disabilities.

49. Information access obstacles: Privacy
Surveillance Society
There is a trade-off between freedom of access and privacy – some argue we may have to choose between
IT enables more surveillance by big brother
SunPass allows faster travel, but your moves are recorded, allowing law enforcement to use the information for other purposes
See how Radio Frequency Identification Systems [used in SunPass and other monitoring systems] could become SpyChips at:

50. Information access obstacles: Privacy
Two sides of the coin
Brin (1999) in The Transparent Society makes the case that universal information access enhances freedom – Rather than blinding the mighty, allow everyone to see
However, many see prevailing trends as providing some but not unlimited information access while establishing some but limited privacy rights.
Brin – “When given the choice between privacy and accountability we always choose privacy for ourselves and accountability for everyone else. This is especially noxious when it’s some all-powerful leader making the choice.”
Example of two cities with cameras everywhere. In one, cameras monitored by police; the other, by any interested citizen.

51. Information access obstacles: Other
Outsourcing
An open agency must retain control over its information resources either directly or through contracts
Intellectual property rights
There is a tension between preservation of intellectual property rights and public access
Literacy
Information must be provided at the literary level of the population being served
Technical issues
Rate of technology change, decay of data media, obsolescence of equipment

52. GAO
US Government Accountability Office (GAO) is the main accountability agency in U.S.
Independent, nonpartisan agency that works for Congress; often called the "congressional watchdog"
GAO investigates how the federal government spends taxpayer dollars.
The head of GAO, the Comptroller General of the United States, is appointed to a 15-year term by the President
GAO Guidelines for T&A
Start with the client and end with client
Build consensus
Focus on strategic results
Use plan as a framework for all organizational decisions
Publish the plan for transparency reasons

53. Summary – Transparency and accountability
Transparency and accountability are essential for good governance
Openness and responsibility in decision making
Efficiency, effectiveness, and fairness of government processes
IT can facilitate greater transparency and accountability
Broader access to information; Public oversight through various means (e.g. blogs, YouTube); information tracking; more watchdogs
Laws enabling freedom of information access are key to transparency and accountability
However, there are obstacles to IT access that need to be overcome
Security, Privacy, Disability, and Other obstacles

54. Layers of E-Democracy E-Activism E-Campaigning E-Voting E-Legislation
E-Civics
E-Participation

55. E-Activism
The use of electronic means to mobilize volunteers, raise funds, disseminate information, and otherwise pursue the various functions of interest groups seeking to influence public policy
Community Computing Movement – 1980s-90s – empowering the powerless – National Public Telecomputing Network (NPTN)
NPTN – “The NPTN helped communities develop their own Free-Net systems and licensed and coordinated Free-Nets. It was itself an outgrowth of the United States’ first Free-Net. Free-Nets are community-run online services offering , Web pages, discussion forums, and a variety of information resources. Although most are now connected to the Internet, many were originally standalone dial-up services. They cost nothing for individual users and community organizations and are intended to be to the Internet what Public Broadcasting is to radio and television.”
From the Smart Computing Encyclopedia at
NPTN bankrupt in 1996, but functions assumed by Organization for Community Networks –

56. E-Activism Berkeley’s Community Memory experiment
Community Memory Experiment – 1972 to Terminal at record store where users could send and receive messages. Messages could be retrieved by keyword. Originally designed as an experiment to see how people would react to the capability of sending and receiving electronic messages.
Self described as an “information flea market.”

57. E-Activism Santa Monica PEN (Public Electronic Network)
Santa Monica PEN – designed to increase citizen involvement in city government and politics. Utilization by 5,000 residents including more than 200 homeless.
Environmental, anti-globalization activism
E-Activism by Public Managers
Public managers and politicians have also started activism through blogs to influence public opinion

58. E-Campaigning
The use of electronic means to mobilize volunteers, raise funds, disseminate information and otherwise pursue the various functions of interest groups that seek to influence elections.
1992 campaign of Ross Perot was an early effort in e-Campaigning – utilization of hundreds of public bulletin boards (BBS) – CompuServe as an example
MoveOn.org – 2000 – millions of activists, huge fundraising capabilities
Alexis Rice Study- E-Campaigning does not always lead to political mobilization – citizens use the online resources for information, but action requires stronger motivation.
But, e-campaigning may be replacing personal relationships with constituents
E-Campaigning by Public Managers
Prohibited, but there may be implicit pressure to make incumbents look good via agency websites
Barack Obama raised most of his funding through online campaigns

59. E-Voting
The electronic means to implement voting or polling processes via the Internet or other networks, not necessarily limited to traditional political elections. Promoted by the America Vote Act 2002
Theoretically, e-Voting records all votes without error, provides instantaneous reporting, and provides opportunities to vote remotely
Main concerns with e-Voting are sabotage, lack of a paper trail, possibilities of machine malfunction, and voter fraud.
E-Voting’s effect on public managers
Unless directly involved with administering elections, mostly used for surveys and feedback

60. E-Legislating
The use of electronic means to enhance the legislative process – follow progress of bills; contacts for legislators; online hearings and committee sessions
Agenda-setting tools by both state legislatures and the federal government
Library of Congress website – 1995 – main web presence for Congress – full-text bill search; full-text search of the Congressional Record; roll call votes; online committee reports
E-Legislating provides a primary communication means for public comment and distribution of proposed policy information
E-Legislating provides a means for oversight of bureaucracy and increases transparency
Allows proactively searching for problems that require action
E-Legislating effect on public managers
Bidirectional interaction involves monitoring and communication.

61. E-Civics
The use of electronic means to provide citizens access to agency information – most Americans already use e-civics functions.
Mandate to provide copies of information to public repositories since the 1800s – Federal Depository Library Program
Electronic Freedom of Information Act of 1996
E-Civics has expanded from information provision to transaction processing and service provision
Effect on Public Managers
New Public Management and implications for lowered cost of government

62. E-Civics
Effect on public managers – lowered cost of government information – Reschenthaler and Thompson (1996)
Market mechanisms become more efficient than direct provision of government services or regulation, e.g., increase in financial information lessens the need for regulation to protect investors – obviously did not work out too well
Decentralized allocation of resources more efficient than centralized; decisions pushed to lower levels
Job-oriented process structures more efficient than functional structures of traditional bureaucracy, e.g., multidisciplinary teams working holistically rather than functional teams working sequentially
Argue that information revolution requires radical government restructuring (cutting back to core functions), reinvention through customer driven product-market strategy, devolution to market mechanisms, reengineering (new processes, not adjustments to old), rethinking (creating adaptive information culture), and realigning (ensuring organizational structure matches information culture).
Source: Garson - Public information technology and e-governance: managing the virtual state

63. E-Participation
The use of electronic means to encourage public participation in governmental decision making or agency rule-making
Three forms:
decision-making transparency
provision of electronic information in a timely manner related to upcoming policy decisions and options
and communication
e-Regulation
e-Regulation – electronic hearings and input on proposed rules and regulations
Administrative Procedures Act 1946 mandated public participation in the rule making process

64. E-Participation
Presidential Management Agenda Initiative (Bush Administration, 2002) made e-rule-making a priority
E-Government Act – 2002
E-Government Act of 2002 – created Regulations.gov – allows citizens and interest groups to find, review, and submit comments on proposed rules and regulations. Problem is, most materials are highly technical and do not provide policy context. If you do not understand the subject area intimately, you may find little of use here. Big question – how much weight is given to citizen comments?
E-Government Act of 2002:
Established new agency within OMB, the Office of Electronic Government, responsible for electronic information management for promotion of interagency cooperation to improve public services.
Created Chief Information Council to work with federal, state, and local agencies to develop policies, requirements, and strategies.
Established E-Government Fund to provide funding for projects that allow for easier public access to information, improved services, and enhanced project coordination and planning.
Source:

65. Lesson Summary – E-democracy
E-democracy’s six dimensions
E-activism, E-campaigning, E-voting, E-legislating, E-civics, E-participation.
There is much debate about the meaningfulness and future of e-democracy and the speed of the future changes.
Information systems tend to reinforce existing bureaucratic structures
Reinforcement theory – There is little evidence that IT is revolutionary with respect to existing power structures at any level
E-democracy’s effect on centralization versus decentralization